Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library

Sepsis‐induced Changes in Pancreatic Hormone Secretion

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Alterations in Insulin Concentration, Secretion, and Clearance
1.1 Hemorrhage and Acute Blood Loss
1.2 Thermal Injury
1.3 Traumatic Injury
1.4 Bacterial Infection
1.5 Endotoxin and Related Insults
1.6 Summary
2 Alterations in Glucagon Concentration, Secretion, and Clearance
2.1 Hemorrhage and Acute Blood Loss
2.2 Thermal Injury
2.3 Traumatic Injury
2.4 Bacterial Infection
2.5 Endotoxin and Related Insults
2.6 Summary
3 Stress‐Induced Changes in Other Pancreatic Hormones
3.1 Amylin
3.2 Somatostatin
3.3 Pancreatic Polypeptide
4 Impact of Trauma‐Induced Changes in Glucagon and Insulin on Metabolism
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Phases of response to trauma and infection (“injury”).



Figure 1.

Phases of response to trauma and infection (“injury”).

References
 1. Adeleye, G. A., L. M. Al‐Jibouri, B. L. Furman, and J. R. Parratt. Endotoxin‐induced catabolic changes in the conscious, unrestrained rat: Hypoglycemia and elevated blood lactate concentrations without hyperinsulinemia. Circ. Shock 8: 543–550, 1981.
 2. Adrian, T. E., S. R. Bloom, M. G. Byrant, J. M. Polak, P. H. Heitz, and A. J. Barnes. Distribution and release of human pancreatic polypeptide. Gut 17: 940–944, 1976.
 3. Allison, S. P., P. Hinton, and M. J. Chamberlain. Intravenous glucose‐tolerance, insulin, and free‐fatty‐acid levels in burned patients. Lancet 2: 1113–1116, 1968.
 4. Almdahl, S. M., T. G. Jenssen, P. G. Burhol, and K.‐E. Giercksky. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide and somatostatin in experimental endogenous gram‐negative peritonitis. Acta Chir. Scand. 152: 135–138, 1986.
 5. Andersson, P.‐O., L.‐O. Farnebo, B. B. Fredholm, B. Hamberger, J. Holst, and J. Jarhult. Metabolic and hormonal adjustments during hemorrhage in cats after interference with the sympathoadrenal system. Acta Physiol. Scand. 114: 111–119, 1982.
 6. Andersson, P.‐O., J. Holst, and J. Jarhult. Role of the sympathoadrenal system in the control of endocrine pancreas during haemorrhage in cats. Eur. Surg. Res. 11: 409–422, 1979.
 7. Andersson, R., M. Pettersson, and B. Ahren. Glucose tolerance and insulin secretion in experimental peritonitis in the rat. Eur. Surg. Res. 22: 101–112, 1990.
 8. Ardawi, M. S. M., A. A. Ashy, Y. S. Jamal, and S. M. Khoja. Metabolic control of hepatic gluconeogenesis in response to sepsis. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 114: 579–586, 1989.
 9. Arden, W. A., R. R. Fiscus, X. Wang, L. Yang, R. Maley, M. Nielsen, S. Lanzo, and D. R. Gross. Elevations in circulating calcitonin gene‐related peptide correlated with hemodynamic deterioration during endotoxic shock in pigs. Circ. Shock 42: 147–153, 1994.
 10. Arnalich, F., A. Hernanz, J. Lopez, E. Tato, J. J. Vazquez, and C. Montiel. Relationship between circulating levels of calcitonin generelated peptide, nitric oxide metabolites and hemodynamic changes in human septic shock. Regul. Pept. 65: 115–121, 1996.
 11. Bagby, G. J., C. H. Lang, N. Skrepnik, G. Golightly, and J.J. Spitzer. Regulation of glucose metabolism after endotoxin and during infection is largely independent of endogenous tumor necrosis factor. Circ. Shock 39: 211–219, 1993.
 12. Batstone, G. F., K. G. M. M. Alberti, L. Hinks, P. Smythe, J. E. Laing, C. M. Ward, D. W. Ely, and S. R. Bloom. Metabolic studies in subjects following thermal injury: Intermediary metabolites, hormones and tissue oxygenation. Burns 2: 207–225, 1976.
 13. Bauer, W. E., S. N. M. Vigas, R. E. Haist, and W. R. Drucker. Insulin response during hypovolemic shock. Surgery 66: 80–88, 1969.
 14. Bereiter, D. A., P. M. Plotsky, and D. S. Gann. Selective opiate modulation of the physiological responses to hemorrhage in the cat. Endocrinology 113: 1439–1483, 1983.
 15. Bitter, R., M. Butters, R. Ebert, and H. G. Beger. Entero‐insular axis and surgical trauma. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 23: 633–640, 1988.
 16. Blackard, W. G., J. H. Anderson, Jr., and J. J. Spitzer. Hyperinsulinism in endotoxin shock dogs. Metabolism 25: 675–684, 1976.
 17. Bloesch, D., U. Keller, G. A. Spinas, D. Küry, J. Girard, and W. Stauffacher. Effects of endotoxin on leucine and glucose kinetics in man: Contribution of prostaglandin E2 assessed by a cyclooxygenase inhibitor J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 77: 1156–1163, 1993.
 18. Briand, R., J. Gagne, and N. Yamaguchi. Role of glucagon in hyperglycemic response during a short period of hemorrhage in an‐esthetized dogs. Circ. Shock 29: 345–359, 1989.
 19. Briand, R., J. Gagne, and N. Yamaguchi. Pancreatic glucagon secretion during a short period of hemorrhage in anesthetized dogs. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 68: 814–819, 1990.
 20. Brockman R. P., and J. G. Manns. Effect of trauma on plasma glucagon and insulin concentrations in sheep. Can. J. Comp. Med. 40: 5–8, 1976.
 21. Brunicardi, F. C., D. Elahi, and D. K. Andersen. Splanchnic neural regulation of somatostatin secretion in the isolated perfused human pancreas. Ann. Surg. 219: 258–266, 1994.
 22. Bundz, S., P. E. Molina, C. H. Lang, and N. N. Abumrad. Endogenous opiates do not modulate LPS‐induced alterations in carbohydrate metabolism. Shock 4: 397–402, 1995.
 23. Carey, L. C., B. D. Lowery, and C. T. Cloutier. Blood sugar and insulin response of humans in shock. Ann. Surg. 172: 342–350, 1970.
 24. Caruana, J. A., D. A. Whalen, W. C. Maben, and H‐H. Chem. ã‐adrenergic blockade increases the hepatic extraction of glucose in sepsis. Arch. Surg. 121: 319–323, 1986.
 25. Cerchio, G. M., P. A. Persico, and H. Jeffay. Inhibition of insulin release during hypovolemic shock. Metabolism 22: 1449–1458, 1973.
 26. Clowes, G. H. A., H. Martin, S. Walji, E. Hirsch, R. Gazitua, and R. Goodfellow. Blood insulin responses to blood glucose levels in high output sepsis and septic shock. Am. J. Surg. 135: 577–583, 1978.
 27. Cooney, R., E. Owen, C. Jurasinski, K. Gray, J. Vannice, and T. Vary. Interleukin‐1 receptor antagonist prevents sepsis‐induced inhibition of protein synthesis. Am. J. Physiol. 267: E636–E641, 1994.
 28. Cooper, G. J. S.. Amylin compared with calcitonin gene‐related peptide: Structure, biology and relevance to metabolic disease. Endocr. Rev. 15: 163–201, 1994.
 29. Cornell, R. P.. Endotoxin‐induced hyperinsulinemia and hyperglucagonemia after experimental liver injury. Am. J. Physiol. 241: E428–E435, 1981.
 30. Cornell R. P.. Role of the liver in endotoxin‐induced hyperinsulinemia and hyperglucagonemia in rats. Hepatol. 3: 188–192, 1983.
 31. Cornell, R. P.. Endogenous gut‐derived bacterial endotoxin tonically primes pancreatic secretion of insulin in normal rats. Diabetes 34: 1253–1259, 1985.
 32. Cornell, R. P.. Hyperinsulinemia elicited by interleukin‐1 and nonlethal endotoxemia in rats. Circ. Shock 28: 121–130, 1989.
 33. Curnow, R. T., E. J. Rayfield, D. T. George, T. V. Zenser, and F. R. De Rubertis. Altered hepatic glycogen metabolism and glucoregulatory hormones during sepsis. Am. J. Physiol. 230: 1295–1301, 1976.
 34. Dahn, M. S., L. A. Jacobs, S. Smith, B. Hans, M. P. Lange, R. A. Mitchell, and J. R. Kirkpatrick. The relationship of insulin production to glucose metabolism in severe sepsis. Arch. Surg. 120: 166–172, 1985.
 35. Dahn, M. S., M. P. Lange, R. A. Mitchell, K. Lobdell, and R. F. Wilson. Insulin production following injury and sepsis. J. Trauma 27: 1031–1038, 1987.
 36. Desai, D., R. March, and J. M. Watters. Hyperglycemia after trauma increases with age. J. Trauma 29: 719–723, 1989.
 37. Dolecek, R., M. Adamkova, T. Sotornikova, M. Zavada, P. Kraemar. Endocrine response after burn. Scand. J. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 13: 9–13, 1979.
 38. Dunning, B. E., J. G. Verbalis, C. P. Fawcett. Evidence for participation of the neurohypophysial hormones in the hyperglucagonemic response to hemorrhage in the rat. Neuroendocrinology 41: 385–389, 1985.
 39. Fettman, M. J., L. G. Chandrasena, M. S. Hand, J. L. Cleek, R. A. Mason, P. A. Brooks, and R. W. Phillips. Lidocaine therapy in awake endotoxemic Yucatan minipigs. I. Metabolic parameters and glucose biokinetics. Circ. Shock 13: 193–209, 1984.
 40. Fettman, M. J., M. S. Hand, L. G. Chandrasena, J. L., Cleek, R. A. Mason, P. A. Brooks, and R. W. Phillips. Effects of captopril on hemodynamic and metabolic parameters in awake endotoxemic Yucatan minipigs. Circ. Shock 12: 25–46, 1984.
 41. Fettman, M. J., M. S. Hand, L. G. Chandrasena, J. L. Cleek, R. A. Mason, P. A. Brooks, and R. W. Phillips. Naloxone therapy in awake endotoxemic Yucatan minipigs. J. Surg. Res. 37: 208–225, 1984.
 42. Fettman, M. J., M. S. Hand, L. G. Chandrasena, J. L. Cleek, R. A. Mason, P. A. Brooks, and R. W. Phillips. Methylprednisolone and gentamicin effects on hepatosplanchnic blood flow and carbohydrate metabolism in endotoxemic Yucatan miniature pigs. Am. J. Vet. Res. 47: 2468–2476, 1986.
 43. Fettman, M. J., M. S. Hand, L. G. Chandrasena, J. L. Cleek, R. A. Mason, and R. W. Phillips. Hepatosplanchnic insulin kinetics in awake endotoxemic Yucatan minipigs: The Amisinformed B‐cell hypothesis revisited. Circ. Shock 14: 237–250, 1984.
 44. Fettman, M. J., M. S. Hand, P. Van Order, R. W. Phillips. Acute changes in pancreatic insulin secretion and hepatic glucose kinetics in endotoxemic miniature pigs. Am. J. Vet. Res. 48: 855–861, 1987.
 45. Flakoll, P. J., L. S. Wentzel, and S. A. Hyman. Protein and glucose metabolism during isolated closed‐head injury. Am. J. Physiol. 269: E636–E641, 1995.
 46. Floyd, J. C., S. S. Fajans, S. Pek, and R. E. Chance. A newly recognized pancreatic polypeptide: plasma levels in health and disease. Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 33: 519–570, 1977.
 47. Fong, Y., M. A. Marano, A. Barber, W. He, L. L. Moldawer, E. D. Bushman, S. M. Coyle, G. T. Shires, and S. F. Lowry. Total parenteral nutrition and bowel rest modify the metabolic response to endotoxin in humans. Ann. Surg. 210: 449–457, 1989.
 48. Fong, Y., M. A. Marano, L. L. Moldawer, H. Wei, S. E. Calvano, J. S. Kenney, A. C. Allison, A. Cerami, G. T. Shires, and S. F. Lowry. The acute splanchnic and peripheral tissue metabolic response to endotoxin in humans. J. Clin. Invest. 85: 1896–1904, 1990.
 49. Frayn, K. N.. Disappearance of 125I‐labelled and unlabelled insulins from blood in normal and injured rats. Clin. Sci. Mol. Med. 50: 385–392, 1976.
 50. Frayn, K. N.. Hormonal control of metabolism in trauma and sepsis. Clin. Endocrinol. 24: 577–599, 1986.
 51. Frayn, K. N., R. A. Little, P. F. Maycock, and H. B. Stoner. The relationship of plasma catecholamines to acute metabolic and hormonal responses to injury in man. Circ. Shock 16: 229–240, 1985.
 52. Frayn, K. N., P. F. Maycock, R. A. Little, D. W. Yates, and H. B. Stoner. Factors affecting the plasma insulin concentration shortly after accidental injury in man. Arch. Emerg. Med. 4: 91–99, 1987.
 53. Friman, Goran, N‐G. Ilback, D. J. Crawford, and H. A. Neufeld. Metabolic responses to swimming exercise in Streptococcus pneumonia infected rats. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 23: 415–421, 1991.
 54. Hadfield, J. M., R. A. Little, and R. A. C. Jones. Measured energy expenditure and plasma substrate and hormonal changes after severe head injury. Injury 23: 177–182, 1992.
 55. Hakanson, E., H. Rutberg, L. Jorfeldt, and L. Wiklund. Endocrine and metabolic responses after standardized moderate surgical trauma: influence of age and sex. Clin. Physiol. 4: 461–473, 1984.
 56. Halmagyi, D. F. J., D. J. Gillett, L. Lazarus, and J. D. Young. Blood glucose and serum insulin in reversible and irreversible posthemorrhagic shock. J. Trauma 6: 623–629, 1966.
 57. Halmagyi, D. F. J., I. R. Neering, L. Lazarus, J. D. Young, and J. Pullin. Plasma glucagon in experimental posthemorrhagic shock. J. Trauma 9: 320–326, 1969.
 58. Hand, M. S., M. J. Fettman, L. G. Chandrasena, J. L. Cleek, R. A. Mason, and R. W. Phillips. Part II. Increased glucose uptake precedes hyperinsulinemia in awake endotoxemic minipigs. Circ. Shock 11: 287–295, 1983.
 59. Hand, M. S., M. J. Fettman, L. G. Chandrasena, J. L. Cleek, R. A. Mason, and R. W. Phillips. Persistent hyperinsulinemia due to induced euglycemia in awake endotoxic minipigs. Circ. Shock 14: 169–187, 1984.
 60. Hargrove, D. M., G. J. Bagby, C. H. Lang, and J. J. Spitzer. Adrenergic blockade does not abolish elevated turnover during bacterial infection. Am. J. Physiol. 254: E16–E22, 1986.
 61. Hargrove, D. M., G. J. Bagby, C. H. Lang, and J. J. Spitzer. Adrenergic blockade prevents endotoxin‐induced increases in glucose metabolism. Am. J. Physiol. 255: E629–E635, 1988.
 62. Hargrove, D. M., N. Skrepnick, C. H. Lang, G. J. Bagby, and J. J. Spitzer. Role of insulin in the blunted glucose metabolic response of septic rats to epinephrine. Metabolism 39: 1180–1185, 1990.
 63. Herndon, D. H., R. E. Barrow, T. C. Rutan, P. Minifee, F. Jahoor, and R. R. Wolfe. Effect of propranolol administration of hemodynamic and metabolic responses of burned pediatric patients. Ann. Surg. 208: 484–492, 1988.
 64. Hiebert, J. M., Z. Celik, J. S. Soeldner, and R. H. Egdahl. Insulin response to hemorrhagic shock in the intact and adrenalectomized primate. Am. J. Surgery 125: 501–507, 1973.
 65. Hill, M., and R. McCallum. Altered transcriptional regulation of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase in rats following endotoxin treatment. J. Clin. Invest. 88: 811–816, 1991.
 66. Hilsted, L., and J. J. Holst. On the accuracy of radioimmunological determination of somatostatin in plasma. Regul. Pept. 4: 13–31, 1982.
 67. Hinshaw, L. B., B. Benjamin, D. D. Holmes, B. Beller, L. T. Archer, J. J. Coalson, and T. Whitsett. Responses of the baboon to live Escherichia coli organisms and endotoxin. Surg. Gyn. Obstet. 145: 1–11, 1977.
 68. Holst, J. J., S. L. Jensen, S. Knuhtsen, and O. V. Nielsen. Autonomic nervous control of pancreatic somatostatin secretion. Am. J. Physiol. 245: E542–E548, 1983.
 69. Ilback, N‐G., G. Friman, D. J. Crawford, and H. A. Neufeld. Effects of training on metabolic responses and performance capacity in Streptococcus pneumoniae infected rats. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 23: 422–427, 1991.
 70. Ishida, K.. The significance of plasma gastrointestinal glucagon in endotoxemia. Circ. Shock 16: 317–323, 1985.
 71. Ishida, K., L. B. Hinshaw, and G. R. Williams. Plasma gastrointestinal glucagon concentration in dogs administered LD100. Escherichia coli Curr. Surg. 42: 307–311, 1985.
 72. Jacobsen, J., S. Sofelt, S. Sheikh, J. Warberg, and N. H. Secher. Cardiovascular and endocrine responses to haemorrhage in the pig. Acta Physiol. Scand. 138: 167–173, 1990.
 73. Jahoor, F., D. N. Herndon, and R. R. Wolfe. Role of insulin and glucagon in the response of glucose and alanine kinetics in burninjured patients. J. Clin. Invest. 78: 807–814, 1986.
 74. Jarhult, J.. Role of the symphato‐adrenal system in hemorrhagic hyperglycemia. Acta Physiol. Scand. 93: 25–33, 1975.
 75. Jeevanandam, M.. Posttraumatic hormonal environment during total parenteral nutrition. Nutrition 9: 333–338, 1993.
 76. Jeevanandam, M., S. R. Petersen, and R. F. Shamos. Protein and glucose fuel kinetics and hormonal changes in elderly trauma patients. Metabolism 42: 1255–1262, 1993.
 77. Jeevanandam, M., L. Ramias, and W. R. Schiller. Elevated urinary C‐peptide excretion in multiple trauma patients. J. Trauma 31: 334–341, 1991.
 78. Johansen, O., R. Jorder, T. Tønnesen, T. Jenssen, P. G. Burhol, and O. Reikerås. Effects of naloxone on glucagon and insulin concentrations after injection of endotoxin in rats. Eur. J. Surg. 161: 635–638, 1995.
 79. Johansen, O., J. Sundsfjord, S. Vaaler, R. Jorde, T. Tonnesen, P. Burhol, and O. Reikeras. Haemorrhage‐induced increases in glucose, glucagon, and insulin levels are blocked by naloxone in rats. Eur. J. Surg. 160: 403–407, 1994.
 80. Jones, S. B., and M. R. Yelich. Simultaneous elevation of plasma insulin and catecholamines during endotoxicosis in the conscious and anesthetized rat. Life Sci. 41: 1935–1943, 1987.
 81. Joyce, C. D., R. R. Fiscus, X. Wang, D. J Dries, R. C. Morris, and R. A. Prinz. Calcitonin gene‐related peptide levels are elevated in patients with sepsis. Surgery 108: 1097–1101, 1990.
 82. Kawai, K., and R. H. Unger. Opposing actions of glucagon and insulin on splanchnic D cell function. J. Clin. Invest. 71: 721–725, 1983.
 83. Kelleher, D. L., B. C. Fong, G. J. Bagby, and J. J. Spitzer. Metabolic and hormonal changes following endotoxin administration to diabetic rats. Am. J. Physiol. 243: R77–R81, 1982.
 84. Lang, C. H.. Mechanism of insulin resistance in infection. In: Pathophysiology of Shock, Sepsis, and Organ Failure. Schlag, G., and Redl. A. (ed). Springer‐Verlag: New York, pp. 609–625, 1993.
 85. Lang, C. H., G. J. Bagby, H. L. Blakesley, and J. J. Spitzer. Importance of hyperglucagonemia in eliciting the sepsis‐induced increase in glucose production. Circ. Shock 29: 181–191, 1989.
 86. Lang, C. H., C. Dobrescu, D. M. Hargrove, G. J. Bagby, and J. J. Spitzer. Attenuation of endotoxin‐induced increase in glucose metabolism by platelet‐activating factor antagonist. Circ. Shock 23: 179–188, 1987.
 87. Lang, C. H., J. Fan, R. Cooney, and T. C. Vary. IL‐I receptor antagonist attenuates sepsis‐induced alterations in the IGF system and protein synthesis. Am. J. Physiol. 270: E430–E437, 1996.
 88. Lang, C. H., J. Fan, R. A. Frost, M. C. Gelato, Y. Sakurai, D. N. Herndon, and R. R. Wolfe. Regulation of the insulin‐like growth factor system by insulin in burn patients. J. Clin. Endocrin. Metabol. 81: 2474–2480, 1996.
 89. Lang, C. H., Z. Spolarics, A. Ottlakan, and J. J. Spitzer. Effect of high‐dose endotoxin on glucose production and utilization. Metabolism 42: 1351–1358, 1993.
 90. Lau, T. S., W. Taubenfligel, R. Levene, G. Farago, H. Chan, I. Koven, and W. R. Drucker. Pancreatic blood flow and insulin output in severe hemorrhage. J. Trauma 12: 880–884, 1972.
 91. Lau, T. S., N. McMillan, A. Cherrington, S. Lo, W. R. Drucker, and I. H. Koven. Insulin metabolism in depancreatized dogs during hemorrhagic shock. J. Surg. Oncol. 8: 49–52, 1976.
 92. Lautt, W. W., D. J. Legare, and E. S. Martens. A possible role for somatostatin in depression of insulin and glucagon levels during hemorrhage. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 61: 237–240, 1983.
 93. Lautt, W. W., E. S. Martens, and D. J. Legare. Insulin and glucagon response during hemorrhage induced hyperglycemia. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 60: 1624–1629, 1982.
 94. Leffert, J. D., C. B. Newgard, H. Okamoto, J. L. Milburn, and K. L. Luskey. Rat amylin: cloning and tissue‐specific expression in pancreatic islets. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86: 3127–3130, 1989.
 95. Lindsey, C. A., G. R. Faloona, and R. H. Unger. Plasma glucagon levels during rapid exsanguination with and without adrenergic blockade. Diabetes 24: 313–316, 1975.
 96. Lindsey, C. A., F. Santeusanio, J. Braaten, G. R. Faloona, R. H. Unger. Pancreatic alpha‐cell function in trauma. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 227: 757–761, 1974.
 97. Ling, P. R., N. W. Istfan, E. Colon, and B. R. Bistrian. Differential effects of interleukin‐1 receptor antagonist in cytokine‐and endotoxin‐treated rats. Am. J. Physiol. 268: E255–E261, 1995.
 98. Ljungqvist, O., S. Efendic, P. Eneroth, B. Hamberger, G. Nylander, and J. Ware. Nutritional status and endocrine response to hemorrhage. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 64: 1185–1188, 1986.
 99. Ljungqvist, O., A. Thorell, M. Gutniak, T. Haggmark, and S. Efendic. Glucose infusion instead of preoperative fasting reduces postoperative insulin resistance. J. Am. Coll. Surg. 178: 329–336, 1994.
 100. Lucey, M. R.. Endogenous somatostatin and the gut. Gut 27: 457–467, 1986.
 101. Lukinius, A., E. Wilander, G. T. Westermark, U. Engstrom, and P. Westermark. Co‐localization of islet amyloid polypeptide and insulin in the B cell secretory granules of the human pancreatic islets. Diabetologia 32: 240–244, 1989.
 102. Manny, J., N. Rabinovici, and M. Schiller. Insulin response to continuous glucose load in endotoxin shock in the dog. Surg. Gyn. Obstet. 145: 198–202, 1977.
 103. Mateo Z., L. Napier, J. F. Gaugl, B. A. Barron, J. L. Caffrey. Hemorrhage alters plasma and cardiac enkephalins and catecholamines in anesthetized dogs. Am. J. of Physiol. 269: H2082–H2089, 1995.
 104. Matthews, D. S. F., A. Aynsley‐Green, J. N. S. Matthews, R. E. Bullock, B. G. Cooper, and J. A. Eyre. The effect of severe head injury on whole body energy expenditure and its possible hormonal mediators in children. Pediatr. Res. 37: 409–417, 1995.
 105. McGuinness, O. P.. The impact of infection on gluconeogenesis in the conscious dog. Shock 2: 336–343, 1994.
 106. McGuinness, O. P., J. Jacobs, C. Moran, and B. Lacy. Impact of infection on hepatic disposal of a peripheral glucose infusion in the conscious dog. Am. J. Physiol. 269: E199–E207, 1995.
 107. McGuinness, O. P., D. B. Lacy, and J. Anderson. Effect of acute glucagon removal on metabolic response to infection in the conscious dog. Am. J. Physiol. 268: E92–E99, 1995.
 108. McKechnie, K., H. G. Dean, B. L. Furman, and J. R. Parratt. Plasma catecholamines during endotoxin infusion in conscious unrestrained rats: Effects of adrenal demedullation and/or guanethidine treatment. Circ. Shock 17: 85–94, 1985.
 109. McLane, M. P., T. W. Tomasik, W. R. Law, and R. M. Raymond. Hepatic insulin resistance during canine sepsis. Circ. Shock 33: 207–215, 1991.
 110. McLeod, M. K., D. E. Carlson, and D. S. Gann. Secretory response of glucagon to hemorrhage. J. Trauma 23: 445–452, 1983.
 111. McLeod, M. K., D. E. Carlson, and D. S. Gann. Hormonal responses associated with early hyperglycemia after graded hemorrhage in dogs. Am. J. Physiol. 25: E597–E603, 1986.
 112. Meguid, M. M., F. Aun, and J. S. Soeldner. The effect of severe trauma on urine loss of insulin. Surgery 79: 177–181, 1976.
 113. Meguid, M. M., F. Aun, and J. S. Soeldner. Temporal characteristics of insulin:glucose ratio after varying degrees of stress and trauma in man. J. Surg. Res. 25: 389–393, 1978.
 114. Meguid, M. M., F. Aun, J. S. Soeldner, D. A. Alberton, and C. M. Boyden. Insulin half‐life in man after trauma. Surgery 89: 650–653, 1981.
 115. Melarvie, S., M. Jeevanandam, N. J. Holaday, and S. R. Petersen. Pulsatile nature of growth hormone levels in critically ill trauma victims. Surgery 117: 402–408, 1995.
 116. Miller, R. E.. Pancreatic neuroendocrinology: Peripheral neural mechanisms in the regulation of the islets of Langerhans. Endocr. Rev. 2: 471–494, 1981.
 117. Morenkova, S. A.. Mechanism of hyperglycemia induced by extensive wounds and generalized surgical infection. Acta Diabetol. Lat. 24: 119–132, 1987.
 118. Moss, G. S., G. M. Cerchio, D. C. Siegel, P. A. Popovich, and E. Butler. Serum insulin response in hemorrhagic shock in baboons. Surgery 68: 34–39, 1970.
 119. Moss, G. S., G. Cerchio, D. C. Siegel, P. C. Reed, A. Cochin, and V. Fresquez. Decline in pancreatic insulin release during hemorrhagic shock in the baboon. Ann. Surg. 175: 210–213, 1972.
 120. Naruko, M., Y. Ogawa, Y. Kido, H. Niwa, Y. Abe, M. Kobayashi, T. Mori, and T. Tanaka. Studies on the energy expenditure following surgical stress. II. The correlation between energy expenditure and hormonal change. Jpn. J. Surg. 18: 694–704, 1988.
 121. Naylor, J. M. and D. S. Kronfeld. In vivo studies of hypoglycemia and lactic acidosis in endotoxic shock. Am. J. Physiol. 248: E309–E316, 1985.
 122. Nelson, K., C. L. Long, R. Bailey, R. J. Smith, H. L. Laws, and W. S. Blakemore. Regulation of glucose kinetics in trauma patients by insulin and glucagon. Metabolism 41: 68–75, 1992.
 123. Ogawa, A., V. Harris, S. K. McCorkle, R. H. Unger, and K. L. Luskey. Amylin secretion from the rat pancreas and its selective loss after streptozotocin treatment. J. Clin. Invest. 85: 973–976, 1990.
 124. Ohsawa, H., A. Kanatsuka, T. Yamaguchi, H. Makino, and S. Yoshida. Islet amyloid polypeptide inhibits glucose‐stimulated insulin secretion from isolated rat pancreatic islets. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 160: 961–967, 1989.
 125. Rayfield, E. J., R. T. Curnow, D. Reinhard and N. M. Kochicheril. Effects of acute endotoxemia on glucoregulation in normal and diabetic subjects. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 45: 513–519, 1977.
 126. Revhaug, A., I. Lygren, T.‐I. Lundgren, R. Jorde, P. G. Burhol, and K.‐E. Giercksky. Release of gastrointestinal peptides during E. coli endotoxinaemia. Acta Chir. Scand. 150: 535–539, 1984.
 127. Revhaug, A., I. Lygren, T. II. Lundgren, R. Jorde, P. G. Burhol and K.‐E. Giercksky. Changes in plasma levels of gastrointestinal regulatory peptides during hemorrhagic shock in pigs. Acta Chir. Scand. 151: 401–407, 1985.
 128. Romanosky, A. J., G. J. Bagby, E. L. Bockman, and J. J. Spitzer. Increased muscle glucose uptake and lactate release after endotoxin administration. Am. J. Physiol. 239: E311–E316, 1980.
 129. Russel, R. C. G., B. J. Pardy, M. E. Carruthers, and S. R. Bloom. Plasma glucagon levels in haemorrhagic shock. Br. J. Surg. 64: 285–289, 1977.
 130. Saito, H., O. Trocki, J. W. Alexander, R. Kopcha, T. Heyd, and S. N. Joffe. The effect of route of nutrient administration on the nutritional state, catabolic hormone secretion, and gut mucosal integrity after burn injury. JPEN 11: 1–7, 1987.
 131. Sammalkorpi, K.. Glucose intolerance in acute infections. J. Intern. Med. 225: 15–19, 1989.
 132. Schwartz, T. W.. Pancreatic polypeptide: A hormone under vagal control. Gastroenterology 85: 1411–1425, 1983.
 133. Schwartz, T. W., B. Stenquist, and L. Olbe. Cephalic phase of pancreatic‐polypeptide secretion studied by sham‐feeding in man. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 14: 313–320, 1979.
 134. Shaw, J. H. F. and R. R. Wolfe. Energy and substrate kinetics and oxidation during ketone infusion in septic dogs: Role of changes in insulin and glucagon. Circ. Shock 14: 63–79, 1984.
 135. Shaw, J. H. F. and R. R. Wolfe. A conscious septic dog model with hemodynamic and metabolic responses similar to responses of humans. Surgery 95: 553–561, 1986.
 136. Shuck, J. M., R. P. Eaton, L. W. Shuck, T. Wachtel, and D. S. Schade. Dynamics of insulin and glucagon secretions in severely burned patients. J. Trauma 17: 706–713, 1977.
 137. Siegel, J. H., F. B. Cerra, B. Coleman, I. Giovannini, M. Shetye, J. R. Border, and R. H. McMenamy. Physiological and metabolic correlations in human sepsis. Surgery 86: 163–193, 1979.
 138. Spitzer, J. J., G. J. Bagby, K. Meszaros, and C. H. Lang. Alterations in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism in sepsis. JPEN 12: 53S–58S, 1988.
 139. Spitzer, J. J., J. L. Ferguson, H. J. Hirsch, S. Loo, and K. H. Gabbay. Effects of E. coli endotoxin on pancreatic hormones and blood flow. Circ. Shock 7: 353–360, 1980.
 140. Stenberg, A., S. Gustavsson, G. Lundqvist, and L. Thoren. Effect of surgical trauma on plasma insulin and somatostatin in response to glucose. Acta Chir. Scand. 150: 119–122, 1984.
 141. Taborsky, G. J., and J. W. Ensinck. Contribution of the pancreas to circulating somatostatin‐like immunoreactivity in the normal dog. J. Clin. Invest. 73: 216–223, 1984.
 142. Tracey, K. J., Y. Fong, D. G. Hesse, K. R. Manogue, A. T. Lee, G. C. Kuo, S. F. Lowry, and A. Cerami. Anti‐cachectin/TNF monoclonal antibodies prevent septic shock during lethal bacteraemia. Nature 330: 662–664, 1987.
 143. Turinsky, J., T. M. Saba, W. A. Scovill, and T. Chesnut. Dynamics of insulin secretion and resistance after burns. J. Trauma 17: 344–350, 1977.
 144. Unger, R. H., and L. Orci. Physiology and pathophysiology of glucagon. Physiol. Rev. 56: 778–826, 1976.
 145. Vitek, V., D. J. Lang, and R. A. Cowley. The unexpected increase of serum insulin levels in patients soon after trauma. Am. Surg. 45: 228–237, 1979.
 146. Voerman, H. J., R. J. M. Stack van Schijndel, A. B. J. Groeneveld, H. de Boer, J. P. Nauta, and L. G. Thijs. Pulsatile hormone secretion during severe sepsis: Accuracy of different blood sampling regimens. Metabolism 41: 934–940, 1992.
 147. Voerman, H. J., A. B. J. Groeneveld, H. de Boer, R. J. M. Strack van Schijndel, J. P. Nauta, E. A. van der Veen, and L. G. Thijs. Time course and variability of the endocrine and metabolic response to severe sepsis. Surgery 114: 951–959, 1993.
 148. Volenec, F. J., G. M. Clark, M. M. Mani, J. Kyner, and L. J. Humphrey. Metabolic profiles of thermal trauma. Ann. Surg. 190: 694–698, 1979.
 149. Wachtel, T. L., J. M. Shuck, D. Schade, R. P. Eaton, and L. W. Shuck. Hyperglucagonemia and hepatic ketogenesis in burned swine. J. Trauma 18: 248–253, 1978.
 150. Wang, K., C. S. Deutschman, M. G. Clemens, and A. De Maio. Reciprocal expression of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and acute phase genes during acute inflammation. Shock 3: 204–209, 1995.
 151. Wang, X., C. D. Han, R. R. Fiscus, M. Qi, and S. B. Jones. Hypotension‐ and endotoxin‐induced alterations in calcitonin‐gene‐related peptide: Modulation by dexamethasone. Circ. Shock 34: 217–223, 1991.
 152. Wang, X., C. Han, S. B. Jones, L. Yang, and R. R. Fiscus. Calcitonin gene‐related peptide release in endotoxicosis may be mediated by prostaglandins. Shock 3: 34–39, 1995.
 153. Wass, J. A. H., E. Penman, S. Medbak, A. M. Dawson, D. Tsiolakis, V. Marks, G. M. Besser, and L. H. Rees. Immunoreactive somatostatin changes during insulin‐induced hypoglycemia and operative stress in man. Clin. Endocrinol. 12: 269–275, 1980.
 154. White, R. H., K. N. Frayn, R. A. Little, C. J. Therlfall, H. B. Stoner, and M. H. Irving. Hormonal and metabolic responses to glucose infusion in sepsis studied by the hyperglycemic glucose clamp technique. J. Parent. Enter. Nutr. 11: 345–353, 1987.
 155. Wilmore, D. W., A. D. Mason, and B. A. Pruitt. Insulin response to glucose in hypermetabolic burn patients. Ann. Surg. 183: 314–320, 1976.
 156. Wimalawansa, S. J.. Calcitonin gene‐related peptide and its receptors: molecular genetics, physiology, pathophysiology, and therapeutic potentials. Endocr. Rev. 17: 533–585, 1996.
 157. Wojnar, M. M., J. Fan, R. A. Frost, M. C. Gelato, and C. H. Lang. Alterations in the insulin‐like growth factor system in trauma patients. Am. J. Physiol. 268: R970–R977, 1995.
 158. Wolfe, R. R. and J. H. F. Shaw. Glucose and FFA kinetics in sepsis: Role of glucagon and sympathetic nervous system activity. Am. J. Physiol. 248: E236–E243, 1985.
 159. Yamaguchi, N.. Sympathoadrenal system in neuroendocrine control of glucose: Mechanisms involved in the liver, pancreas, and adrenal gland under hemorrhagic and hypoglycemic stress. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 70: 167–206, 1992.
 160. Yelich, M. R.. Effects of naloxone on glucose and insulin regulation during endotoxicosis in fed and fasted rats. Circ. Shock 26: 273–285, 1988.
 161. Yelich, M. R.. Glucoregulatory, hormonal, and metabolic responses to endotoxicosis or cecal ligation and puncture sepsis in the rat: A direct comparison. Circ. Shock 31: 351–363, 1990.
 162. Yelich, M. R.. The effect of epinephrine on insulin and glucagon secretion from the endotoxic rat pancreas. Pancreas 8: 450–458, 1993.
 163. Yelich, M. R. and J. P. Filkins. Mechanism of hyperinsulinemia in endotoxicosis. Am. J. Physiol. 239: E156–E161, 1980.
 164. Yelich, M. R. and J. P. Filkins. Insulin hypersecretion and potentiation of endotoxin shock in the rat. Circ. Shock 9: 589–603, 1982.
 165. Yelich, M. R., and J. P. Filkins. Role for calcium in the insulin hypersecretory state of the endotoxic rat pancreas. Circ. Shock 14: 49–62, 1984.
 166. Yelich, M. R., C. K. Schieber, D. M. Umporowicz, and J. P. Filkins. Polymyxin‐B suppresses endotoxin‐induced insulin hypersecretion in pancreatic islets. Circ. Shock 38: 85–90, 1992.
 167. Yelich, M. R., D. M. Umporowicz, and B. A. Drolet. Role of somatostatin in glucose regulating during endotoxicosis in the rat. Am. J. Physiol. 264: R254–R261, 1993.
 168. Yelich, M. R., D. M. Umporowicz, M. Qi, and S. B. Jones. Insulin‐inhibiting effects of epinephrine are blunted during endotoxicosis in the rat. Circ. Shock 35: 129–138, 1991.
 169. Yelich, M. R., and L. Witek‐Janusek. Glucose, lactate, insulin and somatostatin responses to endotoxin in developing rats. Shock 2: 438–444, 1994.
 170. Young, A. A.. Amylin regulation of fuel metabolism. J. Cell. Biochem. 55 Suppl: 12–18, 1994.
 171. Zeller, W. P., M. Goto, L. Witek‐Janusek, and R. M. Hurley. Mortality, temporal substrate and insulin responses to endotoxic shock in zero, ten and twenty‐eight day old rats. Surg. Gynec. Obstet. 173: 375–383, 1991.
 172. Zenser, T. V., F. R. De Rubertis, D. T. George, and E. J. Rayfield. Infection‐induced hyperglucagonemia and altered hepatic response to glucagon in the rat. Am. J. Physiol. 227: 1299–1309, 1974.
 173. Zhang, X.‐J., K. R. Kunkel, F. Jahoor, and R. R. Wolfe. Role of basal insulin in the regulation of protein kinetics and energy metabolism in septic patients. JPEN 15: 394–399, 1991.

Contact Editor

Submit a note to the editor about this article by filling in the form below.

* Required Field

How to Cite

Charles H. Lang. Sepsis‐induced Changes in Pancreatic Hormone Secretion. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 21: Handbook of Physiology, The Endocrine System, The Endocrine Pancreas and Regulation of Metabolism: 999-1014. First published in print 2001. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp070233