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Oxalate Flux Across the Intestine: Contributions from Membrane Transporters

Jonathan M. Whittamore, Marguerite Hatch

10.1002/cphy.c210013

Source: Volume 12, Issue 1, January 2022

Published online: December 2021

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

Epithelial oxalate transport is fundamental to the role occupied by the gastrointestinal (GI) tract in oxalate homeostasis. The absorption of dietary oxalate, together with its secretion into the intestine, and degradation by the gut microbiota, can all influence the excretion of this nonfunctional terminal metabolite in the urine. Knowledge of the transport mechanisms is relevant to understanding the pathophysiology of hyperoxaluria, a risk factor in kidney stone formation, for which the intestine also offers a potential means of treatment. The following discussion presents an expansive review of intestinal oxalate transport. We begin with an overview of the fate of oxalate, focusing on the sources, rates, and locations of absorption and secretion along the GI tract. We then consider the mechanisms and pathways of transport across the epithelial barrier, discussing the transcellular, and paracellular components. There is an emphasis on the membrane‐bound anion transporters, in particular, those belonging to the large multifunctional Slc26 gene family, many of which are expressed throughout the GI tract, and we summarize what is currently known about their participation in oxalate transport. In the final section, we examine the physiological stimuli proposed to be involved in regulating some of these pathways, encompassing intestinal adaptations in response to chronic kidney disease, metabolic acid‐base disorders, obesity, and following gastric bypass surgery. There is also an update on research into the probiotic, Oxalobacter formigenes, and the basis of its unique interaction with the gut epithelium. © 2021 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 11:1‐41, 2021.

Figure 1. Figure 1. An overview of mammalian oxalate homeostasis highlighting the central role of the gastrointestinal tract alongside the liver and kidneys. There are two sources of oxalate in the body, absorption from the diet (exogenous) and as an end‐product of metabolism (endogenous). At the kidneys, oxalate is freely filtered from the blood and excreted in the urine. Dietary oxalate that is not absorbed remains within the intestine where it is degraded by the gut microbiota or eliminated in the feces. The focus of this article is the transport processes involved in GI absorption and secretion of oxalate.
Figure 2. Figure 2. The estimated daily inputs and fate of oxalate along the human gastrointestinal tract. The average amount of oxalate consumed as part of a balanced Western diet has been taken as 2.0 mmol/day 252,255,475,506. In general, less than 10% of this is absorbed 251,252,253 and, for the purposes of this illustration, absorption is set to 8% based on the standardized 13C‐oxalate absorption test 531. The relative contributions of the stomach, small and large intestine to overall absorption have not been determined, but the bulk is likely to be absorbed from the small intestine. The amount of oxalate absorbed (0.16 mmol/day) may contribute between 25% and 50% of total urinary excretion, the remainder (0.24 mmol/day) comes from metabolism. Oxalate not absorbed can be subject to degradation by the gut microbiota which is estimated to remove 0.56 mmol/day based on balance studies 242 and extrapolation from rates of in vitro degradation by human fecal samples 7. Given the concentration of oxalate in human saliva 535, and with a daily flow rate of about 1 liter 267, saliva is projected to contribute an estimated 0.14 mmol/day. Other possible inputs from the gastric juices, bile, pancreatic fluid, and intestinal secretions are unknown. Elimination in the feces was calculated by subtracting the sum of all inputs (diet + saliva) from the sum of absorption and microbial degradation, the resulting value of 1.42 mmol/day agrees well with direct measurements of human fecal oxalate 417.
Figure 3. Figure 3. Kinetics of oxalate absorption by two healthy human adults illustrating the rapid appearance of ingested oxalate in the bloodstream. In the morning, following an overnight fast, each subject consumed 20 μCi of 14C‐oxalate (62.5 mCi/mmol) along with 0.06 mmol potassium oxalate in 100 mL water. Blood samples (10 mL) were collected at regular intervals and radioactivity estimated in triplicate on 1.5 mL aliquots of serum by liquid scintillation spectrophotometry. After 48 h, 11.2% of ingested 14C‐oxalate had been recovered in the urine from Subject 1 (male) and 9.0% from Subject 2 (female). No dietary restrictions were imposed on either test subject and prior determinations of urinary oxalate (average of 2 × 24 h collections) revealed normal excretion rates: 0.312 mmol/24 h (Subject 1) and 0.185 mmol/24 h (Subject 2). Adapted, with permission, from Hatch M, 1978 207.
Figure 4. Figure 4. The gastrointestinal tract is a major route for the extra‐renal excretion of oxalate in a rat model of chronic renal failure (CRF). Age‐matched male Wistar rats (n = 25) underwent a 5/6 nephrectomy to simulate CRF (), a mean value for control rats (○) has been included for comparison. Subcutaneous 14C‐oxalic acid was infused by mini‐osmotic pump over 4 days at a rate of around 2 μCi/day. Urine, feces, and CO2 were collected and analyzed for 14C activity. The elimination of 14C in the feces was expressed as a proportion of total excretion (feces + urine + CO2) in relation to plasma oxalate concentration (μmol/L). Data have been adapted, with permission, from Figure 2 of Costello JF, et al., 1992 117. Fecal excretion and plasma oxalate for normal, control rats (○) are presented as mean ± SE (n = 16) from Table 1 of Costello JF, et al., 1992 117. The data have been fitted to a least‐squares, nonlinear regression model (y = −1.04 + 9.28 ln(x), r2 = 0.599).
Figure 5. Figure 5. An illustration of the pathways for oxalate transport across the epithelial cells of the intestine. Oxalate absorption JmsOx and secretion JsmOx are each composed of transcellular and paracellular movements, the former is facilitated by transport proteins expressed in the apical and basolateral membranes. Paracellular transport involves oxalate moving between cells through the tight junctions located at the apical pole. Transepithelial absorption and secretion take place simultaneously and the overall direction and magnitude of net transport, JnetOx=JmsOx−JsmOx. See text for further details.
Figure 6. Figure 6. In vivo oxalate absorption by the human gastrointestinal tract has a paracellular component. (A) The amount of oxalate absorbed and appearing in the urine over 24 h (based on the percent recovery of oral 13C‐oxalate) following ingestion of an oxalate load consisting of 13C‐oxalate and unlabeled sodium oxalate by two groups of healthy human volunteers (n = 6 each study). Data are mean (SD) and have been reproduced, with permission, based on Table 2 in von Unruh GE, et al., 2006 529 and Table 3 in Knight J, et al., 2007 303. (B) The absorption and recovery in the urine of 13C‐oxalate (1 mmol) and the paracellular marker sucralose (12.6 mmol) in 24 h following ingestion by a group of idiopathic calcium oxalate stone formers. Reproduced, with permission, from Figure 3C in Knight J, et al., 2011 304 and analyzed by linear regression, where y = 2.98 + (1.79x), r2 = 0.142 (F1,33 = 5.466, P = 0.026).
Figure 7. Figure 7. An illustration summarizing early models of the transcellular mechanisms involved in oxalate absorption and secretion based on in vitro studies with rabbit ileum and colon. Before the intestinal Slc26 anion exchangers were identified and corresponding knockout mice came into being, initial characterizations of the membrane proteins responsible for oxalate transport were deduced from experiments with isolated membrane vesicles from rabbit ileum 169,298,299,301 and classical Ussing chamber studies with intact epithelia from rabbit colon 221,222,224 and ileum 169, involving substitutions of the major ions (Na+, Cl−, HCO3−) along with direct application of inhibitors (e.g., DIDS, SITS, amiloride, furosemide, NPPB), and regulators (epinephrine, cAMP) of ion transport. A− = Anion (e.g., Cl−, HCO3−, SO42−).
Figure 8. Figure 8. The distribution of the Slc26 anion transporters throughout the mammalian gastrointestinal tract illustrating our present understanding of the region and membrane location where they are expressed and, if known, the direction of oxalate (Ox2−) movement is indicated along with co‐transported substrate(s). At the apical membrane of acinar cells in (mouse) salivary glands, Slc26a6 (PAT‐1; A6) mediates Cl−/oxalate exchange, contributing to the secretion of oxalate in saliva 375. Since oxalate transport by the stomach, liver, and pancreas has not been investigated in any great detail (if at all), the Slc26 anion exchangers are simply listed based on expression only. In (mouse) small intestine, apical Slc26a3 (DRA; A3) and PAT‐1 are involved in oxalate absorption and secretion, respectively 168,171,276. This role for DRA also extends into the large intestine and, while PAT‐1 is expressed there as well 228,272,309,317,326,348,380,495, two recent studies with the PAT‐1 KO mouse found no evidence of a contribution to oxalate transport 211,558. Slc26a2 (DTDST; A2) has been characterized as an oxalate transporter in vitro 236,388,452, localized to the apical membrane of the small and large intestine 131,197,198,206,398,452, but what role it may have (if any) remains unknown. Similarly, Slc26a9 (A9) can transport oxalate in vitro 347, yet it has a very limited distribution in the small intestine, restricted to the crypts of the (mouse) proximal duodenum 346, and any contribution has not been investigated. The role of the only basolateral transporter, Slc26a1 (SAT‐1; A1), is controversial in both the small and large intestine 132,559. Note, the cellular allocations of transporters in this figure are presented for the purposes of convenience only and are not intended to signify actual co‐expression of these proteins, which is unknown. For further information and details on all of these individual transporters see the main text.
Figure 9. Figure 9. Adaptations to oxalate transport by the Roux limb following Roux‐en‐Y gastric bypass (RYGB) surgery and colonization with Oxalobacter formigenes (strain OxWR) in vitro. (A) An illustration of how the proximal small intestine and stomach are configured after RYGB surgery. The stomach is divided to produce a small gastric pouch which empties into the anastomosed jejunum, this becomes the Roux limb, bypassing what remains of the stomach, duodenum, and proximal jejunum (biliopancreatic limb). The latter is connected to the jejunum thereby allowing bile and pancreatic secretions to drain into and mix with nutrients in what becomes the “common limb”. Adapted, with permission, from Aron‐Wisnewsky J, et al., 2012 30. (B) The unidirectional flux of oxalate, JOx (pmol/cm2 h) measured across pairs of isolated, short‐circuited segments from the most proximal portion of the Roux limb in RYGB rats compared to the corresponding portion of the jejunum (the “pre‐destined Roux limb”) from Sham‐operated animals (n = 5–6 tissue pairs each) at 20 weeks postsurgery while receiving a diet containing 10% fat supplemented with 1.5% oxalate. Transepithelial conductance, GT of the Roux limb was 5.9 ± 0.7 mS/cm2 in RYGB animals and significantly lower than the Sham group (17.1 ± 1.8 mS/cm2). Short‐circuit current, Isc was also significantly lower in the Roux limb (−0.28 ± 0.03 μeq/cm2 h) compared to Sham animals (−0.80 ± 0.21 μeq/cm2 h). An asterisk represents a statistically significant difference determined by independent t‐test (P < 0.05). Reproduced, with permission, from Hatch M and Canales BK, 2016 212. (C) The unidirectional flux of oxalate, JOx (pmol/cm2 h) measured across pairs of isolated, short‐circuited segments from the mid‐Roux limb in RYGB rats colonized with Oxalobacter formigenes (OxWR) and compared to noncolonized RYGB animals (n = 5–6 tissue pairs each) approximately 20 weeks postsurgery while receiving a diet containing 10% fat supplemented with 1.5% oxalate. Neither GT nor Isc were significantly different between noncolonized (5.9 ± 0.7 mS/cm2; −0.30 ± 0.03 μeq/cm2 h) and colonized (6.9 ± 0.4 mS/cm2; −0.31 ± 0.05 μeq/cm2 h) groups, respectively. An asterisk represents a statistically significant difference determined by independent t‐test (P < 0.05). Reproduced, with permission, from Canales BK and Hatch M, 2017 81.


Figure 1. An overview of mammalian oxalate homeostasis highlighting the central role of the gastrointestinal tract alongside the liver and kidneys. There are two sources of oxalate in the body, absorption from the diet (exogenous) and as an end‐product of metabolism (endogenous). At the kidneys, oxalate is freely filtered from the blood and excreted in the urine. Dietary oxalate that is not absorbed remains within the intestine where it is degraded by the gut microbiota or eliminated in the feces. The focus of this article is the transport processes involved in GI absorption and secretion of oxalate.


Figure 2. The estimated daily inputs and fate of oxalate along the human gastrointestinal tract. The average amount of oxalate consumed as part of a balanced Western diet has been taken as 2.0 mmol/day 252,255,475,506. In general, less than 10% of this is absorbed 251,252,253 and, for the purposes of this illustration, absorption is set to 8% based on the standardized 13C‐oxalate absorption test 531. The relative contributions of the stomach, small and large intestine to overall absorption have not been determined, but the bulk is likely to be absorbed from the small intestine. The amount of oxalate absorbed (0.16 mmol/day) may contribute between 25% and 50% of total urinary excretion, the remainder (0.24 mmol/day) comes from metabolism. Oxalate not absorbed can be subject to degradation by the gut microbiota which is estimated to remove 0.56 mmol/day based on balance studies 242 and extrapolation from rates of in vitro degradation by human fecal samples 7. Given the concentration of oxalate in human saliva 535, and with a daily flow rate of about 1 liter 267, saliva is projected to contribute an estimated 0.14 mmol/day. Other possible inputs from the gastric juices, bile, pancreatic fluid, and intestinal secretions are unknown. Elimination in the feces was calculated by subtracting the sum of all inputs (diet + saliva) from the sum of absorption and microbial degradation, the resulting value of 1.42 mmol/day agrees well with direct measurements of human fecal oxalate 417.


Figure 3. Kinetics of oxalate absorption by two healthy human adults illustrating the rapid appearance of ingested oxalate in the bloodstream. In the morning, following an overnight fast, each subject consumed 20 μCi of 14C‐oxalate (62.5 mCi/mmol) along with 0.06 mmol potassium oxalate in 100 mL water. Blood samples (10 mL) were collected at regular intervals and radioactivity estimated in triplicate on 1.5 mL aliquots of serum by liquid scintillation spectrophotometry. After 48 h, 11.2% of ingested 14C‐oxalate had been recovered in the urine from Subject 1 (male) and 9.0% from Subject 2 (female). No dietary restrictions were imposed on either test subject and prior determinations of urinary oxalate (average of 2 × 24 h collections) revealed normal excretion rates: 0.312 mmol/24 h (Subject 1) and 0.185 mmol/24 h (Subject 2). Adapted, with permission, from Hatch M, 1978 207.


Figure 4. The gastrointestinal tract is a major route for the extra‐renal excretion of oxalate in a rat model of chronic renal failure (CRF). Age‐matched male Wistar rats (n = 25) underwent a 5/6 nephrectomy to simulate CRF (), a mean value for control rats (○) has been included for comparison. Subcutaneous 14C‐oxalic acid was infused by mini‐osmotic pump over 4 days at a rate of around 2 μCi/day. Urine, feces, and CO2 were collected and analyzed for 14C activity. The elimination of 14C in the feces was expressed as a proportion of total excretion (feces + urine + CO2) in relation to plasma oxalate concentration (μmol/L). Data have been adapted, with permission, from Figure 2 of Costello JF, et al., 1992 117. Fecal excretion and plasma oxalate for normal, control rats (○) are presented as mean ± SE (n = 16) from Table 1 of Costello JF, et al., 1992 117. The data have been fitted to a least‐squares, nonlinear regression model (y = −1.04 + 9.28 ln(x), r2 = 0.599).


Figure 5. An illustration of the pathways for oxalate transport across the epithelial cells of the intestine. Oxalate absorption JmsOx and secretion JsmOx are each composed of transcellular and paracellular movements, the former is facilitated by transport proteins expressed in the apical and basolateral membranes. Paracellular transport involves oxalate moving between cells through the tight junctions located at the apical pole. Transepithelial absorption and secretion take place simultaneously and the overall direction and magnitude of net transport, JnetOx=JmsOx−JsmOx. See text for further details.


Figure 6. In vivo oxalate absorption by the human gastrointestinal tract has a paracellular component. (A) The amount of oxalate absorbed and appearing in the urine over 24 h (based on the percent recovery of oral 13C‐oxalate) following ingestion of an oxalate load consisting of 13C‐oxalate and unlabeled sodium oxalate by two groups of healthy human volunteers (n = 6 each study). Data are mean (SD) and have been reproduced, with permission, based on Table 2 in von Unruh GE, et al., 2006 529 and Table 3 in Knight J, et al., 2007 303. (B) The absorption and recovery in the urine of 13C‐oxalate (1 mmol) and the paracellular marker sucralose (12.6 mmol) in 24 h following ingestion by a group of idiopathic calcium oxalate stone formers. Reproduced, with permission, from Figure 3C in Knight J, et al., 2011 304 and analyzed by linear regression, where y = 2.98 + (1.79x), r2 = 0.142 (F1,33 = 5.466, P = 0.026).


Figure 7. An illustration summarizing early models of the transcellular mechanisms involved in oxalate absorption and secretion based on in vitro studies with rabbit ileum and colon. Before the intestinal Slc26 anion exchangers were identified and corresponding knockout mice came into being, initial characterizations of the membrane proteins responsible for oxalate transport were deduced from experiments with isolated membrane vesicles from rabbit ileum 169,298,299,301 and classical Ussing chamber studies with intact epithelia from rabbit colon 221,222,224 and ileum 169, involving substitutions of the major ions (Na+, Cl−, HCO3−) along with direct application of inhibitors (e.g., DIDS, SITS, amiloride, furosemide, NPPB), and regulators (epinephrine, cAMP) of ion transport. A− = Anion (e.g., Cl−, HCO3−, SO42−).


Figure 8. The distribution of the Slc26 anion transporters throughout the mammalian gastrointestinal tract illustrating our present understanding of the region and membrane location where they are expressed and, if known, the direction of oxalate (Ox2−) movement is indicated along with co‐transported substrate(s). At the apical membrane of acinar cells in (mouse) salivary glands, Slc26a6 (PAT‐1; A6) mediates Cl−/oxalate exchange, contributing to the secretion of oxalate in saliva 375. Since oxalate transport by the stomach, liver, and pancreas has not been investigated in any great detail (if at all), the Slc26 anion exchangers are simply listed based on expression only. In (mouse) small intestine, apical Slc26a3 (DRA; A3) and PAT‐1 are involved in oxalate absorption and secretion, respectively 168,171,276. This role for DRA also extends into the large intestine and, while PAT‐1 is expressed there as well 228,272,309,317,326,348,380,495, two recent studies with the PAT‐1 KO mouse found no evidence of a contribution to oxalate transport 211,558. Slc26a2 (DTDST; A2) has been characterized as an oxalate transporter in vitro 236,388,452, localized to the apical membrane of the small and large intestine 131,197,198,206,398,452, but what role it may have (if any) remains unknown. Similarly, Slc26a9 (A9) can transport oxalate in vitro 347, yet it has a very limited distribution in the small intestine, restricted to the crypts of the (mouse) proximal duodenum 346, and any contribution has not been investigated. The role of the only basolateral transporter, Slc26a1 (SAT‐1; A1), is controversial in both the small and large intestine 132,559. Note, the cellular allocations of transporters in this figure are presented for the purposes of convenience only and are not intended to signify actual co‐expression of these proteins, which is unknown. For further information and details on all of these individual transporters see the main text.


Figure 9. Adaptations to oxalate transport by the Roux limb following Roux‐en‐Y gastric bypass (RYGB) surgery and colonization with Oxalobacter formigenes (strain OxWR) in vitro. (A) An illustration of how the proximal small intestine and stomach are configured after RYGB surgery. The stomach is divided to produce a small gastric pouch which empties into the anastomosed jejunum, this becomes the Roux limb, bypassing what remains of the stomach, duodenum, and proximal jejunum (biliopancreatic limb). The latter is connected to the jejunum thereby allowing bile and pancreatic secretions to drain into and mix with nutrients in what becomes the “common limb”. Adapted, with permission, from Aron‐Wisnewsky J, et al., 2012 30. (B) The unidirectional flux of oxalate, JOx (pmol/cm2 h) measured across pairs of isolated, short‐circuited segments from the most proximal portion of the Roux limb in RYGB rats compared to the corresponding portion of the jejunum (the “pre‐destined Roux limb”) from Sham‐operated animals (n = 5–6 tissue pairs each) at 20 weeks postsurgery while receiving a diet containing 10% fat supplemented with 1.5% oxalate. Transepithelial conductance, GT of the Roux limb was 5.9 ± 0.7 mS/cm2 in RYGB animals and significantly lower than the Sham group (17.1 ± 1.8 mS/cm2). Short‐circuit current, Isc was also significantly lower in the Roux limb (−0.28 ± 0.03 μeq/cm2 h) compared to Sham animals (−0.80 ± 0.21 μeq/cm2 h). An asterisk represents a statistically significant difference determined by independent t‐test (P < 0.05). Reproduced, with permission, from Hatch M and Canales BK, 2016 212. (C) The unidirectional flux of oxalate, JOx (pmol/cm2 h) measured across pairs of isolated, short‐circuited segments from the mid‐Roux limb in RYGB rats colonized with Oxalobacter formigenes (OxWR) and compared to noncolonized RYGB animals (n = 5–6 tissue pairs each) approximately 20 weeks postsurgery while receiving a diet containing 10% fat supplemented with 1.5% oxalate. Neither GT nor Isc were significantly different between noncolonized (5.9 ± 0.7 mS/cm2; −0.30 ± 0.03 μeq/cm2 h) and colonized (6.9 ± 0.4 mS/cm2; −0.31 ± 0.05 μeq/cm2 h) groups, respectively. An asterisk represents a statistically significant difference determined by independent t‐test (P < 0.05). Reproduced, with permission, from Canales BK and Hatch M, 2017 81.
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Article Title: Oxalate Flux Across the Intestine: Contributions from Membrane Transporters
 

How to Cite

Jonathan M. Whittamore, Marguerite Hatch. Oxalate Flux Across the Intestine: Contributions from Membrane Transporters. Compr Physiol 2021, 12: 2835-2875. doi: 10.1002/cphy.c210013