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Structural and Metabolic Processes Directly Related to Action Potential Propagation

L. B. Cohen, P. De Weer

10.1002/cphy.cp010105

Source: Supplement 1: Handbook of Physiology, The Nervous System, Cellular Biology of Neurons

Originally published: 1977

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Structure
1.1 Optical Properties
1.2 Heat Production
2 Recovery Processes Following Impulse Conduction
2.1 Properties of the Sodium‐Potassium Pump
2.2 Recovery Heat
2.3 Oxygen Consumption
2.4 Intrinsic Fluorescence
2.5 Metabolic Intermediates
2.6 Metabolic Control
2.7 Electrical Phenomena Accompanying Recovery
3 Prognosis
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Fluorescence increase (noisy trace) of a merocyanine dye [dye I of 39] during the action potential (thin trace) in a giant axon from Loligo pealei. The fluorescence increase has the same time course as the potential change, and thus this fluorescence change appears to be related to membrane potential and not to ionic current or membrane permeability. The dye merocyanine I is‐5‐[(3‐sulfopropyl‐2‐(3H)‐benzoxazolydine)‐2‐butenyli‐dene]‐1,3‐dibutyl‐2‐thiobarbituric acid. In this and other such figures the direction of the arrow to the right of the trace indicates the direction of an increase in intensity, and the length of the arrow corresponds to the stated value of the change in intensity divided by the resting intensity for a single sweep. Temperature, 15° C; 16 sweeps averaged.

From Cohen et al. 39
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Merocyanine I fluorescence changes (top trace) during voltage‐clamp steps (middle trace) in a giant axon from L. pealei. The current density is shown in the bottom trace. The fluorescence changes have a time course similar to that of the potential. Electrical compensation for the resistance in series with the membrane was used [see 26 and 38 for effects of compensation on optical records]. Hyperpolarizing is downward; inward current is downward. Temperature, 13° C; 25 sweeps averaged.

From Cohen et al. 39
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Merocyanine I fluorescence change versus membrane potential in squid axon. The fluorescence is linearly related to membrane potential. The origin of the potential scale is the resting potential.

From Cohen et al. 39
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Change in intensity (retardation) versus membrane potential in a squid axon. Experimental points fell near the curve, which represents potential squared with an origin at + 125 mV. The origin of the potential scale is the resting potential. Voltage steps of 0.3‐ms duration were used. Hyperpol., hyperpolarization; depol., depolarization.

From Cohen et al. 35
Figure 5. Figure 5.

The 90° light‐scattering change (irregular line) measured in L. forbesi during the action potential (regular line). The light‐scattering change had two phases: an early increase that accompanied the spike and a slow, long‐lasting increase that continued long after the action potential. Temperature, 12° C; 8 × 103 sweeps averaged.

From Cohen et al. 37
Figure 6. Figure 6.

The 90° light‐scattering change (top line) in L. forbesi during voltage‐clamp potential steps (middle line). Current densities are shown in bottom line. There was a large scattering change during depolarizing step but only a small change during hyperpolarizing step. Temperature, 19° C; 9 × 102 sweeps averaged.

From Cohen et al. 38
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Changes in 90° light scattering (heavy lines) in L. pealei resulting from two different depolarizing steps (bottom line). A 50‐mV step (solid curve, bottom trace) led to a large increase in permeability and a large inward current (solid curve, middle trace). A large scattering increase resulted. The potential reached by 92‐mV depolarizing step (dashed curve, bottom trace) was near equilibrium potential, and thus the current (dashed curve, middle trace) was much smaller even though the permeability increase was still large. When the current was blocked, there was no clearly demonstrable scattering change. This axon had been microinjected with tetraethylammonium bromide, final concentration 24 mM, to block delayed outward currents. Temperature, 12° C; 2.4 × 102 sweeps averaged.

From Cohen et al. 38
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Effect of replacing a chloride seawater with isethionate‐glutamate seawater on the 90° light scattering in L. pealei. Scattering change was reduced in size in the isethionate‐glutamate seawater. The current resulted from a 120‐mV depolarizing potential step. Temperature, 12° C; 64 sweeps averaged.

From Cohen et al. 38
Figure 9. Figure 9.

Changes in temperature of the nonmyelinated fibers of a rabbit vagus nerve following individual stimulations applied at the arrow. Temperature, 5.3° C; 102 sweeps averaged.

From Howarth et al. 80
Figure 10. Figure 10.

Relation between [ATP]i and Na efflux in dialyzed squid axons (double logarithmic plot). Horizontal bar indicates the range of [ATP] found in fresh axons. Inset shows data for 0–200 μM ATP plotted on a linear scale. All data normalized to 15° C.

From Brinley & Mullins 22
Figure 11. Figure 11.

Relation between [Na]i and Na+ efflux in dialyzed squid axons. Dialysis solutions contained 5 mM ATP and 5 mM phosphoarginine. Internal Na+ was substituted for K+, their combined concentration being kept at 380 mM. Artificial seawater contained Na+, 430 mM; K+, 9 mM; Ca2+, 9 mM; Mg2+, 48 mM; Cl−, 496 mM. The different symbols represent different axons.

From Brinley & Mullins 22
Figure 12. Figure 12.

Effects of [K]o and [Na]o on ouabain‐sensitive sodium efflux from intact squid axons. Efflux is expressed relative to that into artificial seawater (ASW) containing 460 mM NaCl and 10 mM KCl. External sodium was replaced with choline (□, ) or dextrose (▪, ).

From Baker et al. 7
Figure 13. Figure 13.

Relation between [K]o and ATP‐dependent K+ influx in dialyzed squid axons. Each point is a comparison between 10 mM K and the test [K]o. For seawater (SW) composition, see Fig. 11. Dialysis fluid contained Na+, 80 mM; and K+, 310 mM.

From Mullins & Brinley 121
Figure 14. Figure 14.

Relation between [Na]i and ATP‐dependent K+ influx in dialyzed squid axons. The points are comparisons between [Na]i = 80 mM and the test [Na]i. For internal and external fluid composition, see Fig. 11.

From Mullins & Brinley 121
Figure 15. Figure 15.

Transport coupling ratio in squid giant axon. Upper graph, the dependence of the ratio of ATP‐dependent Na+ efflux to ATP‐dependent K+ influx on internal sodium concentration. Lower graph, the ratio of Na to K coupling as a function of [ATP]i

Slightly modified from Mullins & Brinley 121
Figure 16. Figure 16.

Total heat production (initial heat plus recovery heat) in rabbit desheathed vagal nonmyelinated nerves at 21°C after 20 shocks at 2.5 Hz (short horizontal bar). The records labeled N were taken in ordinary Locke's solution. Alternating with these are the responses obtained after the nerve had been equilibrated in: a K‐free Locke's solution, a solution in which all Na+ had been replaced by K+ (KCl), and a Locke's solution containing 1 mM ouabain. KCl record shows the heating effect of the stimulating current. The fact that nominally K‐free solutions do not abolish poststimulus heat production (or oxygen consumption or membrane hyperpolarization) is explained by assuming that enough K+ leaks out of the cell to activate the sodium pump. The slight increase in delayed heat production may be due to a greater entry of Na+ during spike conduction in K‐free media.

From Howarth et al. 80
Figure 17. Figure 17.

Changes in the rate of respiration of a crab nerve during and after a tetanus. The nerve was bathed in seawater containing 10 mM K+. Stimulation started at the arrow and lasted for 6 min at 2 Hz (A); or for 10 min at 4 Hz (B); or for 10 min at 4 Hz, then 8 min at 10 Hz (C). Temperature, 16° C.

From Baker & Connelly 8
Figure 18. Figure 18.

Effect of ouabain on the intrinsic fluorescence response to stimulation of a rabbit cervical vagus nerve at 35° C. Arrows indicate the 5‐s period of stimulation at 30 Hz. Upper trace, control in normal Locke's solution; lower trace, after a 10‐min exposure to ouabain (1 mM).

From Landowne & Ritchie 101
Figure 19. Figure 19.

Effect of lithium and of calcium on the intrinsic fluorescence response to stimulation of rabbit cervical vagus nerve at 31°C. Arrows indicate the 5‐s period of stimulation at 30 Hz. a, control in normal Locke's solution; b, after soaking in a lithium‐substituted Locke's solution; c, after soaking in a lithium‐Locke's solution containing no calcium.

From Landowne & Ritchie 101
Figure 20. Figure 20.

Effect of ouabain on the intrinsic fluorescence response to stimulation of a rabbit cervical vagus nerve at 20° C. Between the arrows the nerve was stimulated for 15 s at 37 Hz. a, in normal Locke's solution; b, in the presence of ouabain (1 mM). Note disappearance of a slow component in the presence of ouabain.

From Landowne & Ritchie 100
Figure 21. Figure 21.

Effect of calcium on the intrinsic fluorescence response to stimulation of a rabbit cervical vagus nerve at 22° C. Arrows indicate a 5‐s period of stimulation at 37 Hz. a, in normal Locke's solution; b, after 15‐min exposure to Ca‐free Locke's solution.

From Landowne & Ritchie 100
Figure 22. Figure 22.

Concentrations (μmol/g wet wt) of ATP (•), ADP (), AMP (⊙), phosphocreatine (⊕), and Pi (○) at rest and after 15‐s period of stimulation at 50 Hz in desheathed rabbit vagus nerves at 37° C. Stimulation was between −15 and 0 s.

From Chmouliovsky et al. 31
Figure 23. Figure 23.

Glycogen breakdown and glycolytic (Embden‐Meyerhof) pathway.
Figure 24. Figure 24.

Effect of ouabain on the posttetanic hyperpolarization of the nonmyelinated fibers of rabbit vagus nerves. Stimulation was at 370 Hz for 5 s. a, control posttetanic hyperpolarizing response; b, response when 1 mM ouabain was added 30 s after end of stimulation; c, response after 12 min in ouabain. In order to reduce shunting of the pump current by Cl, all chloride in the Locke's solution was replaced with isethionate.

From Rang & Ritchie 130


Figure 1.

Fluorescence increase (noisy trace) of a merocyanine dye [dye I of 39] during the action potential (thin trace) in a giant axon from Loligo pealei. The fluorescence increase has the same time course as the potential change, and thus this fluorescence change appears to be related to membrane potential and not to ionic current or membrane permeability. The dye merocyanine I is‐5‐[(3‐sulfopropyl‐2‐(3H)‐benzoxazolydine)‐2‐butenyli‐dene]‐1,3‐dibutyl‐2‐thiobarbituric acid. In this and other such figures the direction of the arrow to the right of the trace indicates the direction of an increase in intensity, and the length of the arrow corresponds to the stated value of the change in intensity divided by the resting intensity for a single sweep. Temperature, 15° C; 16 sweeps averaged.

From Cohen et al. 39


Figure 2.

Merocyanine I fluorescence changes (top trace) during voltage‐clamp steps (middle trace) in a giant axon from L. pealei. The current density is shown in the bottom trace. The fluorescence changes have a time course similar to that of the potential. Electrical compensation for the resistance in series with the membrane was used [see 26 and 38 for effects of compensation on optical records]. Hyperpolarizing is downward; inward current is downward. Temperature, 13° C; 25 sweeps averaged.

From Cohen et al. 39


Figure 3.

Merocyanine I fluorescence change versus membrane potential in squid axon. The fluorescence is linearly related to membrane potential. The origin of the potential scale is the resting potential.

From Cohen et al. 39


Figure 4.

Change in intensity (retardation) versus membrane potential in a squid axon. Experimental points fell near the curve, which represents potential squared with an origin at + 125 mV. The origin of the potential scale is the resting potential. Voltage steps of 0.3‐ms duration were used. Hyperpol., hyperpolarization; depol., depolarization.

From Cohen et al. 35


Figure 5.

The 90° light‐scattering change (irregular line) measured in L. forbesi during the action potential (regular line). The light‐scattering change had two phases: an early increase that accompanied the spike and a slow, long‐lasting increase that continued long after the action potential. Temperature, 12° C; 8 × 103 sweeps averaged.

From Cohen et al. 37


Figure 6.

The 90° light‐scattering change (top line) in L. forbesi during voltage‐clamp potential steps (middle line). Current densities are shown in bottom line. There was a large scattering change during depolarizing step but only a small change during hyperpolarizing step. Temperature, 19° C; 9 × 102 sweeps averaged.

From Cohen et al. 38


Figure 7.

Changes in 90° light scattering (heavy lines) in L. pealei resulting from two different depolarizing steps (bottom line). A 50‐mV step (solid curve, bottom trace) led to a large increase in permeability and a large inward current (solid curve, middle trace). A large scattering increase resulted. The potential reached by 92‐mV depolarizing step (dashed curve, bottom trace) was near equilibrium potential, and thus the current (dashed curve, middle trace) was much smaller even though the permeability increase was still large. When the current was blocked, there was no clearly demonstrable scattering change. This axon had been microinjected with tetraethylammonium bromide, final concentration 24 mM, to block delayed outward currents. Temperature, 12° C; 2.4 × 102 sweeps averaged.

From Cohen et al. 38


Figure 8.

Effect of replacing a chloride seawater with isethionate‐glutamate seawater on the 90° light scattering in L. pealei. Scattering change was reduced in size in the isethionate‐glutamate seawater. The current resulted from a 120‐mV depolarizing potential step. Temperature, 12° C; 64 sweeps averaged.

From Cohen et al. 38


Figure 9.

Changes in temperature of the nonmyelinated fibers of a rabbit vagus nerve following individual stimulations applied at the arrow. Temperature, 5.3° C; 102 sweeps averaged.

From Howarth et al. 80


Figure 10.

Relation between [ATP]i and Na efflux in dialyzed squid axons (double logarithmic plot). Horizontal bar indicates the range of [ATP] found in fresh axons. Inset shows data for 0–200 μM ATP plotted on a linear scale. All data normalized to 15° C.

From Brinley & Mullins 22


Figure 11.

Relation between [Na]i and Na+ efflux in dialyzed squid axons. Dialysis solutions contained 5 mM ATP and 5 mM phosphoarginine. Internal Na+ was substituted for K+, their combined concentration being kept at 380 mM. Artificial seawater contained Na+, 430 mM; K+, 9 mM; Ca2+, 9 mM; Mg2+, 48 mM; Cl−, 496 mM. The different symbols represent different axons.

From Brinley & Mullins 22


Figure 12.

Effects of [K]o and [Na]o on ouabain‐sensitive sodium efflux from intact squid axons. Efflux is expressed relative to that into artificial seawater (ASW) containing 460 mM NaCl and 10 mM KCl. External sodium was replaced with choline (□, ) or dextrose (▪, ).

From Baker et al. 7


Figure 13.

Relation between [K]o and ATP‐dependent K+ influx in dialyzed squid axons. Each point is a comparison between 10 mM K and the test [K]o. For seawater (SW) composition, see Fig. 11. Dialysis fluid contained Na+, 80 mM; and K+, 310 mM.

From Mullins & Brinley 121


Figure 14.

Relation between [Na]i and ATP‐dependent K+ influx in dialyzed squid axons. The points are comparisons between [Na]i = 80 mM and the test [Na]i. For internal and external fluid composition, see Fig. 11.

From Mullins & Brinley 121


Figure 15.

Transport coupling ratio in squid giant axon. Upper graph, the dependence of the ratio of ATP‐dependent Na+ efflux to ATP‐dependent K+ influx on internal sodium concentration. Lower graph, the ratio of Na to K coupling as a function of [ATP]i

Slightly modified from Mullins & Brinley 121


Figure 16.

Total heat production (initial heat plus recovery heat) in rabbit desheathed vagal nonmyelinated nerves at 21°C after 20 shocks at 2.5 Hz (short horizontal bar). The records labeled N were taken in ordinary Locke's solution. Alternating with these are the responses obtained after the nerve had been equilibrated in: a K‐free Locke's solution, a solution in which all Na+ had been replaced by K+ (KCl), and a Locke's solution containing 1 mM ouabain. KCl record shows the heating effect of the stimulating current. The fact that nominally K‐free solutions do not abolish poststimulus heat production (or oxygen consumption or membrane hyperpolarization) is explained by assuming that enough K+ leaks out of the cell to activate the sodium pump. The slight increase in delayed heat production may be due to a greater entry of Na+ during spike conduction in K‐free media.

From Howarth et al. 80


Figure 17.

Changes in the rate of respiration of a crab nerve during and after a tetanus. The nerve was bathed in seawater containing 10 mM K+. Stimulation started at the arrow and lasted for 6 min at 2 Hz (A); or for 10 min at 4 Hz (B); or for 10 min at 4 Hz, then 8 min at 10 Hz (C). Temperature, 16° C.

From Baker & Connelly 8


Figure 18.

Effect of ouabain on the intrinsic fluorescence response to stimulation of a rabbit cervical vagus nerve at 35° C. Arrows indicate the 5‐s period of stimulation at 30 Hz. Upper trace, control in normal Locke's solution; lower trace, after a 10‐min exposure to ouabain (1 mM).

From Landowne & Ritchie 101


Figure 19.

Effect of lithium and of calcium on the intrinsic fluorescence response to stimulation of rabbit cervical vagus nerve at 31°C. Arrows indicate the 5‐s period of stimulation at 30 Hz. a, control in normal Locke's solution; b, after soaking in a lithium‐substituted Locke's solution; c, after soaking in a lithium‐Locke's solution containing no calcium.

From Landowne & Ritchie 101


Figure 20.

Effect of ouabain on the intrinsic fluorescence response to stimulation of a rabbit cervical vagus nerve at 20° C. Between the arrows the nerve was stimulated for 15 s at 37 Hz. a, in normal Locke's solution; b, in the presence of ouabain (1 mM). Note disappearance of a slow component in the presence of ouabain.

From Landowne & Ritchie 100


Figure 21.

Effect of calcium on the intrinsic fluorescence response to stimulation of a rabbit cervical vagus nerve at 22° C. Arrows indicate a 5‐s period of stimulation at 37 Hz. a, in normal Locke's solution; b, after 15‐min exposure to Ca‐free Locke's solution.

From Landowne & Ritchie 100


Figure 22.

Concentrations (μmol/g wet wt) of ATP (•), ADP (), AMP (⊙), phosphocreatine (⊕), and Pi (○) at rest and after 15‐s period of stimulation at 50 Hz in desheathed rabbit vagus nerves at 37° C. Stimulation was between −15 and 0 s.

From Chmouliovsky et al. 31


Figure 23.

Glycogen breakdown and glycolytic (Embden‐Meyerhof) pathway.



Figure 24.

Effect of ouabain on the posttetanic hyperpolarization of the nonmyelinated fibers of rabbit vagus nerves. Stimulation was at 370 Hz for 5 s. a, control posttetanic hyperpolarizing response; b, response when 1 mM ouabain was added 30 s after end of stimulation; c, response after 12 min in ouabain. In order to reduce shunting of the pump current by Cl, all chloride in the Locke's solution was replaced with isethionate.

From Rang & Ritchie 130
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Article Title: Structural and Metabolic Processes Directly Related to Action Potential Propagation
 

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L. B. Cohen, P. De Weer. Structural and Metabolic Processes Directly Related to Action Potential Propagation. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 1: Handbook of Physiology, The Nervous System, Cellular Biology of Neurons: 137-159. First published in print 1977. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp010105