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Breathing Responses to Imposed Mechanical Loads

Joseph Milic‐Emili, Walter A. Zin

10.1002/cphy.cp030223

Source: Supplement 11: Handbook of Physiology, The Respiratory System, Control of Breathing

Originally published: 1986

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Classification of Loads
2 Classification of Responses
3 Intrinsic Mechanisms and Responses
4 Neural Mechanisms and Responses
4.1 Intensity
4.2 Timing
4.3 Ventilation Equations
5 Model Predictions
5.1 Mechanical Loading During Passive Inspiration
5.2 Mechanical Loading During Passive Expiration
6 Responses to Loading in Anesthetized State
6.1 Immediate Responses to Inspiratory Loading
6.2 Immediate Responses to Expiratory Loading
6.3 Responses to Sustained Mechanical Loading
7 Responses to Pressure Biasing in Anesthetized State
8 Implications of Consciousness
8.1 Responses to Mechanical Loading
8.2 Responses to Pressure Biasing
8.3 Tolerance to Pressure Biasing and to Mechanical Loads
9 Conclusions
Figure 1. Figure 1.

A: broken line represents time course of inspiratory flow for Rrs = 0.05 cmH2O·ml−1·s; solid line indicates flow for Rrs = 0. Ers = 0.2 cmH2O/ml in all circumstances. B: solid line represents time course of driving pressure and time course of volume for Rrs = 0; broken line represents time course of volume for Rrs = 0.05 cmH2O·mr−1·s. Linear part of this curve extrapolates to 1 τrs (dotted line). Rrs and Ers, passive flow resistance and elastance, respectively, of respiratory system; , ventilation; P, pressure; a, rate of forcing‐pressure development; t, time; V, volume.
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Effect of added linear flow resistances (ΔR) on time course of inspiratory flow (A) and volume (B). Control values of passive elastance (Ers) and flow resistance (Rrs) of respiratory system are indicated. Applied pressure as in Fig. 1.
Figure 3. Figure 3.

A: changes in inspiratory duration (ΔTI) required to maintain tidal volume constant after addition of linear flow resistances (ΔR) and consequent increase of time constant (Δτrs). Isopleths indicate relationships for different control Ti values. Intensity of inspiratory drive (a in Eq. 5) is fixed (5 cmH2O/s). B: changes in intensity of inspiratory drive, expressed as percentage of control (5 cmH2O/s), required to maintain tidal volume constant in the face of ΔR. Isopleths indicate relationships for different Ti values that in each instance are the same for loaded and control conditions. Control values of Ers and Rrs as in Fig. 1.
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Effect of added linear elastances (ΔE) on time course of inspiratory flow (A) and volume (B). Control values of passive elastance (Ers) and flow resistance (Rrs) of respiratory system are indicated. Applied pressure as in Fig. 1.
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Relationships as in Fig. 3 for added elastances (ΔE).
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Effect of added flow resistance (ΔR) on time course of volume during passive expiration. Control values for passive elastance (Ers) and flow resistance (Rrs) of respiratory system as well as loaded time constant (τrs) values are indicated.
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Immediate effect of added linear flow resistances (ΔR) on inspirogram of spontaneously breathing anesthetized cat (solid lines). Dotted lines are loaded inspirograms predicted by assuming that neuromuscular inspiratory drive is the same under loaded and unloaded conditions.

Adapted from Zin et al. 106
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Top tracing is arbitrary neural drive. Lower traces are resulting mechanical outputs for 3 time constants (RC) of 0.03, 0.3, and 3 s obtained by varying R. Respiratory frequency is 15/min and the ratio of neural inspiratory duration to total cycle duration is 0.45. RC = 0.3 s, which corresponds approximately to normal.

From Mead 68
Figure 9. Figure 9.

Left: effect of added linear inspiratory elastances (ΔE) on tidal volume of first loaded breath in 6 cats anesthetized with pentobarbital sodium (35 mg/kg). Relationships computed according to Eqs. 10 and 15 using values of passive (Ers), active (E'rs), and effective (E*rs) elastances in Table 1. Added loads are expressed as percentage of corresponding passive values. Right: effect of added linear inspiratory flow resistances (ΔR) on tidal volume of first loaded breath. Average values (± 1 SD) for same 6 cats.

From W. Zin, L. D. Pengelly, and J. Milic‐Emili, unpublished observations
Figure 10. Figure 10.

Steady‐state effects of continuous pressure biasing on tidal volumes and inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes. Average results on 10 seated subjects. Note that, under steady‐state conditions, end‐expiratory volume deviates from relaxation curve of total respiratory system.

Adapted from Rahn et al. 86


Figure 1.

A: broken line represents time course of inspiratory flow for Rrs = 0.05 cmH2O·ml−1·s; solid line indicates flow for Rrs = 0. Ers = 0.2 cmH2O/ml in all circumstances. B: solid line represents time course of driving pressure and time course of volume for Rrs = 0; broken line represents time course of volume for Rrs = 0.05 cmH2O·mr−1·s. Linear part of this curve extrapolates to 1 τrs (dotted line). Rrs and Ers, passive flow resistance and elastance, respectively, of respiratory system; , ventilation; P, pressure; a, rate of forcing‐pressure development; t, time; V, volume.



Figure 2.

Effect of added linear flow resistances (ΔR) on time course of inspiratory flow (A) and volume (B). Control values of passive elastance (Ers) and flow resistance (Rrs) of respiratory system are indicated. Applied pressure as in Fig. 1.



Figure 3.

A: changes in inspiratory duration (ΔTI) required to maintain tidal volume constant after addition of linear flow resistances (ΔR) and consequent increase of time constant (Δτrs). Isopleths indicate relationships for different control Ti values. Intensity of inspiratory drive (a in Eq. 5) is fixed (5 cmH2O/s). B: changes in intensity of inspiratory drive, expressed as percentage of control (5 cmH2O/s), required to maintain tidal volume constant in the face of ΔR. Isopleths indicate relationships for different Ti values that in each instance are the same for loaded and control conditions. Control values of Ers and Rrs as in Fig. 1.



Figure 4.

Effect of added linear elastances (ΔE) on time course of inspiratory flow (A) and volume (B). Control values of passive elastance (Ers) and flow resistance (Rrs) of respiratory system are indicated. Applied pressure as in Fig. 1.



Figure 5.

Relationships as in Fig. 3 for added elastances (ΔE).



Figure 6.

Effect of added flow resistance (ΔR) on time course of volume during passive expiration. Control values for passive elastance (Ers) and flow resistance (Rrs) of respiratory system as well as loaded time constant (τrs) values are indicated.



Figure 7.

Immediate effect of added linear flow resistances (ΔR) on inspirogram of spontaneously breathing anesthetized cat (solid lines). Dotted lines are loaded inspirograms predicted by assuming that neuromuscular inspiratory drive is the same under loaded and unloaded conditions.

Adapted from Zin et al. 106


Figure 8.

Top tracing is arbitrary neural drive. Lower traces are resulting mechanical outputs for 3 time constants (RC) of 0.03, 0.3, and 3 s obtained by varying R. Respiratory frequency is 15/min and the ratio of neural inspiratory duration to total cycle duration is 0.45. RC = 0.3 s, which corresponds approximately to normal.

From Mead 68


Figure 9.

Left: effect of added linear inspiratory elastances (ΔE) on tidal volume of first loaded breath in 6 cats anesthetized with pentobarbital sodium (35 mg/kg). Relationships computed according to Eqs. 10 and 15 using values of passive (Ers), active (E'rs), and effective (E*rs) elastances in Table 1. Added loads are expressed as percentage of corresponding passive values. Right: effect of added linear inspiratory flow resistances (ΔR) on tidal volume of first loaded breath. Average values (± 1 SD) for same 6 cats.

From W. Zin, L. D. Pengelly, and J. Milic‐Emili, unpublished observations


Figure 10.

Steady‐state effects of continuous pressure biasing on tidal volumes and inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes. Average results on 10 seated subjects. Note that, under steady‐state conditions, end‐expiratory volume deviates from relaxation curve of total respiratory system.

Adapted from Rahn et al. 86
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Article Title: Breathing Responses to Imposed Mechanical Loads
 

How to Cite

Joseph Milic‐Emili, Walter A. Zin. Breathing Responses to Imposed Mechanical Loads. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 11: Handbook of Physiology, The Respiratory System, Control of Breathing: 751-769. First published in print 1986. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp030223