Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library
For Librarians For Authors Editors About

Action of the Respiratory Muscles

André de Troyer, Stephen H. Loring

10.1002/cphy.cp030326

Source: Supplement 12: Handbook of Physiology, The Respiratory System, Mechanics of Breathing

Originally published: 1986

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Diaphragm
1.1 Functional Anatomy of the Diaphragm
1.2 Action of the Diaphragm
2 Consequences of Diaphragmatic Contraction
2.1 Diaphragm: Two Muscles
3 Muscles of The Rib Cage
3.1 Functional Anatomy of the Rib Cage
3.2 Intercostal Muscles
3.3 Accessory Muscles
3.4 Rib Cage Shape and Distortion
4 Abdominal Muscles
4.1 Functional Anatomy of Abdominal Muscles
4.2 Action of Abdominal Muscles
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Functional anatomy of the diaphragm. A app, zone of apposition of the diaphragm to the rib cage.
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Spirometric record (top) and electromyographic activity of the left hemidiaphragm (bottom) recorded with bipolar clip electrodes in a dog breathing quietly. After bilateral phrenicotomy, some activity is still recorded from the diaphragm, especially during the expiratory pause. This activity disappears after a plastic sheet has been placed in the zone of apposition to insulate the diaphragm from the rib cage muscles. Electrocardiogram appears on the records.
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Abdomen and rib cage motion (anteroposterior diameters) at the level of the 7th rib (left) and the 3rd rib (right) during quiet breathing in a tetraplegic human in seated position. Gains on anteroposterior rib cage and abdominal diameters adjusted so that the isovolume maneuver gives a slope of −1. Broken lines represent the relaxation characteristics of the respiratory system; solid loops represent tidal volume cycles. Arrows indicate direction of the loops; small horizontal lines mark the end of inspiration.

Adapted from Mortola and Sant'Ambrogio 59
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Abdomen and lower rib cage motion (anteroposterior diameters) during quiet breathing in a tetraplegic subject in seated (left) and supine (right) position. Broken lines represent the relaxation characteristics; solid loops represent tidal volume cycles. Arrows indicate direction of the loops; small horizontal lines mark the end of inspiration.

Adapted from Danon et al. 17
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Effects of separate stimulation of the costal and crural parts of the diaphragm on the thoracoabdominal configuration in a supine dog. Rib cage dimension refers to the lower rib cage at the level of the xyphoid process. Calibration of the signals done so that an isovolume maneuver gives a deflection of −1. Left: abdomen is closed and abdominal pressure increases during diaphragmatic stimulation. Right: abdomen is open so that the increase in abdominal pressure during stimulation is small and the appositional component of diaphragm's action is almost suppressed.

From De Troyer et al. 24
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Mechanical model of inspiratory muscle action in which the diaphragm is represented as two sets of muscles corresponding to the costal and crural parts. Hatched areas represent fixed structures; inverted U‐shaped bar represents the rib cage; horizontal bar represents the central tendon. Spring between the rib cage and fixed structures represents the elastic properties of the rib cage; spring between the rib cage and the central tendon represents the elastic properties of the lung; spring between the central tendon and other fixed structures represents the elastic properties of the abdomen.
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Left lateral projection of the mechanical model shown in Fig. 6. Same legend as in Fig. 6. Hatched areas are the bony structures other than the rib cage; inverted L‐shaped bar represents the rib cage that is attached to the vertebral column by a hinge. Right: a more anatomically realistic drawing of the diaphragm illustrating the separation of costal and crural parts.

Adapted from Macklem et al. 75
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Segmental innervation of the diaphragm in the dog. Top to bottom: tidal volume, electrical activity of the anterior portion of the costal diaphragm, electrical activity of the posterior portion of the costal diaphragm, and electrical activity of the crural portion of the right hemidiaphragm during separate stimulation of the right fifth (C5), sixth (C6), and seventh (C7) cervical roots in the neck. Time scale = 1 s. [From De Troyer et al. 24.1
Figure 9. Figure 9.

Functional anatomy of the human rib cage. Left: frontal angle of inclination of the axes of the necks of ribs 1 and 6. Right: diagrams of pump‐handle and bucket‐handle inspiratory movements. In the upper ribs, rotation of the rib‐neck axis raises the sternal end of the ribs and increases the anteroposterior diameter of the rib cage (pump‐handle motion). In the lower ribs, movement at the costovertebral joints elevates the lateral part of the ribs and increases the lateral diameter of the rib cage (bucket‐handle motion).

Adapted from Gray's Anatomy
Figure 10. Figure 10.

Changes in abdomen and rib cage cross section during quiet breathing in a supine anesthetized dog before and after bilateral phrenicotomy. The gains on the rib cage and abdominal dimensions adjusted so that the isovolume lines have a slope of approximately −1. Broken line represents relaxation characteristics of the chest wall; solid loops represent tidal volume cycles. Arrows indicate direction of the loops.

From De Troyer and Kelly 20
Figure 11. Figure 11.

Left: anteroposterior abdominal and rib cage diameters during quiet breathing in a human breathing only with the sternocleidomastoids and the trapezius muscles. Diameters adjusted to volume equivalency using the isovolume maneuver. Right: anteroposterior and lateral diameters of the rib cage plotted against each other; their gains adjusted so that the relaxation curve has a slope of +1. Contraction of the sternocleidomastoids and the trapezius muscles causes an increase only in the anteroposterior diameter of the rib cage; both the abdominal anteroposterior and the rib cage lateral diameters decrease during inspiration.

Adapted from Danon et al. 17
Figure 12. Figure 12.

Behavior of the lower and upper parts of the rib cage (cross‐sectional areas) in a tetraplegic human during the course of a maximal inspiration from functional residual capacity (open circle). Arrows indicate direction of the loop; small vertical line marks the end of inspiration.

From Urmey et al. 74
Figure 13. Figure 13.

Individual actions of the abdominal muscles on the lower rib cage in supine anesthetized dogs. In each panel, the gain on the rib cage transverse diameter is adjusted so that its deflection is identical to that obtained for the rib cage anteroposterior diameter (slope of +1) during relaxation (dashed line). Open squares represent the rib cage configuration at functional residual capacity; closed circles correspond to the deflections obtained with the abdomen closed; open circles correspond to the deflections obtained for the same stimulation with the abdomen open.

From De Troyer et al. 22
Figure 14. Figure 14.

Tonic (postural) activity in the abdominal muscles in 3 postures during tilting. Activity is recorded with needle electrodes from the upper and lower parts of the external oblique in a normal human. The gains of the 2 electromyographic (EMG) signals are adjusted to give equal amount of activity during an expulsive maneuver.


Figure 1.

Functional anatomy of the diaphragm. A app, zone of apposition of the diaphragm to the rib cage.



Figure 2.

Spirometric record (top) and electromyographic activity of the left hemidiaphragm (bottom) recorded with bipolar clip electrodes in a dog breathing quietly. After bilateral phrenicotomy, some activity is still recorded from the diaphragm, especially during the expiratory pause. This activity disappears after a plastic sheet has been placed in the zone of apposition to insulate the diaphragm from the rib cage muscles. Electrocardiogram appears on the records.



Figure 3.

Abdomen and rib cage motion (anteroposterior diameters) at the level of the 7th rib (left) and the 3rd rib (right) during quiet breathing in a tetraplegic human in seated position. Gains on anteroposterior rib cage and abdominal diameters adjusted so that the isovolume maneuver gives a slope of −1. Broken lines represent the relaxation characteristics of the respiratory system; solid loops represent tidal volume cycles. Arrows indicate direction of the loops; small horizontal lines mark the end of inspiration.

Adapted from Mortola and Sant'Ambrogio 59


Figure 4.

Abdomen and lower rib cage motion (anteroposterior diameters) during quiet breathing in a tetraplegic subject in seated (left) and supine (right) position. Broken lines represent the relaxation characteristics; solid loops represent tidal volume cycles. Arrows indicate direction of the loops; small horizontal lines mark the end of inspiration.

Adapted from Danon et al. 17


Figure 5.

Effects of separate stimulation of the costal and crural parts of the diaphragm on the thoracoabdominal configuration in a supine dog. Rib cage dimension refers to the lower rib cage at the level of the xyphoid process. Calibration of the signals done so that an isovolume maneuver gives a deflection of −1. Left: abdomen is closed and abdominal pressure increases during diaphragmatic stimulation. Right: abdomen is open so that the increase in abdominal pressure during stimulation is small and the appositional component of diaphragm's action is almost suppressed.

From De Troyer et al. 24


Figure 6.

Mechanical model of inspiratory muscle action in which the diaphragm is represented as two sets of muscles corresponding to the costal and crural parts. Hatched areas represent fixed structures; inverted U‐shaped bar represents the rib cage; horizontal bar represents the central tendon. Spring between the rib cage and fixed structures represents the elastic properties of the rib cage; spring between the rib cage and the central tendon represents the elastic properties of the lung; spring between the central tendon and other fixed structures represents the elastic properties of the abdomen.



Figure 7.

Left lateral projection of the mechanical model shown in Fig. 6. Same legend as in Fig. 6. Hatched areas are the bony structures other than the rib cage; inverted L‐shaped bar represents the rib cage that is attached to the vertebral column by a hinge. Right: a more anatomically realistic drawing of the diaphragm illustrating the separation of costal and crural parts.

Adapted from Macklem et al. 75


Figure 8.

Segmental innervation of the diaphragm in the dog. Top to bottom: tidal volume, electrical activity of the anterior portion of the costal diaphragm, electrical activity of the posterior portion of the costal diaphragm, and electrical activity of the crural portion of the right hemidiaphragm during separate stimulation of the right fifth (C5), sixth (C6), and seventh (C7) cervical roots in the neck. Time scale = 1 s. [From De Troyer et al. 24.1



Figure 9.

Functional anatomy of the human rib cage. Left: frontal angle of inclination of the axes of the necks of ribs 1 and 6. Right: diagrams of pump‐handle and bucket‐handle inspiratory movements. In the upper ribs, rotation of the rib‐neck axis raises the sternal end of the ribs and increases the anteroposterior diameter of the rib cage (pump‐handle motion). In the lower ribs, movement at the costovertebral joints elevates the lateral part of the ribs and increases the lateral diameter of the rib cage (bucket‐handle motion).

Adapted from Gray's Anatomy


Figure 10.

Changes in abdomen and rib cage cross section during quiet breathing in a supine anesthetized dog before and after bilateral phrenicotomy. The gains on the rib cage and abdominal dimensions adjusted so that the isovolume lines have a slope of approximately −1. Broken line represents relaxation characteristics of the chest wall; solid loops represent tidal volume cycles. Arrows indicate direction of the loops.

From De Troyer and Kelly 20


Figure 11.

Left: anteroposterior abdominal and rib cage diameters during quiet breathing in a human breathing only with the sternocleidomastoids and the trapezius muscles. Diameters adjusted to volume equivalency using the isovolume maneuver. Right: anteroposterior and lateral diameters of the rib cage plotted against each other; their gains adjusted so that the relaxation curve has a slope of +1. Contraction of the sternocleidomastoids and the trapezius muscles causes an increase only in the anteroposterior diameter of the rib cage; both the abdominal anteroposterior and the rib cage lateral diameters decrease during inspiration.

Adapted from Danon et al. 17


Figure 12.

Behavior of the lower and upper parts of the rib cage (cross‐sectional areas) in a tetraplegic human during the course of a maximal inspiration from functional residual capacity (open circle). Arrows indicate direction of the loop; small vertical line marks the end of inspiration.

From Urmey et al. 74


Figure 13.

Individual actions of the abdominal muscles on the lower rib cage in supine anesthetized dogs. In each panel, the gain on the rib cage transverse diameter is adjusted so that its deflection is identical to that obtained for the rib cage anteroposterior diameter (slope of +1) during relaxation (dashed line). Open squares represent the rib cage configuration at functional residual capacity; closed circles correspond to the deflections obtained with the abdomen closed; open circles correspond to the deflections obtained for the same stimulation with the abdomen open.

From De Troyer et al. 22


Figure 14.

Tonic (postural) activity in the abdominal muscles in 3 postures during tilting. Activity is recorded with needle electrodes from the upper and lower parts of the external oblique in a normal human. The gains of the 2 electromyographic (EMG) signals are adjusted to give equal amount of activity during an expulsive maneuver.

References
 1. Agostoni, E. Kinematics. In: The Respiratory Muscles: Mechanics and Neural Control, edited by E. J. M. Campbell, E. Agostoni, and J. Newsom Davis. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 1970, p. 23–47.
 2. Agostoni, E., and P. Mognoni. Deformation of the chest wall during breathing efforts. J. Appl. Physiol. 21: 1827–1832, 1966.
 3. Alexander, J. Multiple intercostal neurectomy for pulmonary tuberculosis. Am. Rev. Tuberc. 20: 637–684, 1929.
 4. Beau, J. H. S., and J. H. Maissiat. Recherches sur le mécanisme des mouvements respiratoires. Arch. Gen. Med. 15, Ser. 3: 397–420, 1842.
 5. Botha, G. S. M. The anatomy of phrenic nerve termination and the motor innervation of the diaphragm. Thorax 12: 50–56, 1957.
 6. Boyd, W. H., and J. V. Basmajian. Electromyography of the diaphragm in rabbits. Am. J. Physiol. 204: 943–948, 1963.
 7. Braun, N. M. T., N. S. Arora, and D. F. Rochester. Forcelength relationship of the normal human diaphragm. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 53: 405–412, 1982.
 8. Briscoe, G. The muscular mechanism of the diaphragm. J. Physiol. London 54: 46–53, 1920.
 9. Briscoe, J. C. The mechanism of post‐operative massive collapse of the lungs. Q. J. Med. 13: 293–336, 1920.
 10. Bronk, D. W., and L. K. Ferguson. The nervous control of intercostal respiration. Am. J. Physiol 110: 700–707, 1935.
 11. Campbell, E. J. M. The role of the scalene and sternomastoid muscles in breathing in normal subjects. An electromyographic study. J. Anal 89: 378–386, 1955.
 12. Campbell, E. J. M. Accessory muscles. In: The Respiratory Muscles: Mechanics and Neural Control, edited by E. J. M. Campbell, E. Agostoni, and J. Newsom Davis. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 1970, p. 181–193.
 13. Campbell, E. J. M., and J. Newsom Davis. The intercostal muscles and other muscles of the rib cage. In: The Respiratory Muscles: Mechanics and Neural Control, edited by E. J. M. Campbell, E. Agostoni, and J. Newsom Davis. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 1970, p. 161–174.
 14. Cardin, A. Distribuzione radiculare del nervi frenici nel diaframma. Boll. Soc. Ital. Biol. Sper. 11: 102–104, 1936.
 15. Collis, J. L., L. M. Satchwell, and L. D. Abrams. Nerve supply to the crura of the diaphragm. Thorax 9: 22–25, 1954.
 16. D'Angelo, E., and G. Sant'Ambrogio. Direct action of contracting diaphragm on the rib cage in rabbits and dogs. J. Appl. Physiol. 36: 715–719, 1974.
 17. Danon, J., W. S. Druz, N. B. Goldberg, and J. T. Sharp. Function of the isolated paced diaphragm and the cervical accessory muscles in C1 quadriplegics. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 119: 909–919, 1979.
 18. Da Silva, K. M. C., B. M. A. Savers, T. A. Sears, and D. T. Stagg. The changes in configuration of the rib cage and abdomen during breathing in the anaesthetized cat. J. Physiol. London 266: 499–521, 1977.
 19. Delhez, L. Contribution électromyographics à l'étude de la mécanique et du contrôle nerveux des mouvements respiratoires de l'homme. Liége, Belgium: Vaillant‐Carmanne, 1974.
 20. De Troyer, A., and S. Kelly. Chest wall mechanics in dogs with acute diaphragm paralysis. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 53: 373–379, 1982.
 21. De Troyer, A., and M. G. Sampson. Activation of the parasternal intercostals during breathing efforts in human subjects. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 52: 524–529, 1982.
 22. De Troyer, A., M. Sampson, S. Sigrist, and S. Kelly. How the abdominal muscles act on the rib cage. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 54: 465–469, 1983.
 23. De Troyer, A., M. Sampson, S. Sigrist, and P. T. Macklem. The diaphragm: two muscles. Science 213: 237–238, 1981.
 24. De Troyer, A., M. Sampson, S. Sigrist, and P. T. Macklem. Action of costal and crural parts of the diaphragm on the rib cage in dog. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 53: 30–39, 1982.
 25. De Troyer, A., D. Zegers de Beyl, and M. Thirion. Function of the respiratory muscles in acute hemiplegia. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 123: 631–632, 1981.
 26. Druz, W. S., and J. T. Sharp. Activity of respiratory muscles in upright and recumbent humans. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 51: 1552–1561, 1981.
 27. Duchenne, G. B. Physiologie des mouvements. Paris: Baillière, 1867, p. 611–700.
 28. Duron, B., D. Marlot, and J. M. Macron. Segmental motor innervation of the cat diaphragm. Neurosci. Lett. 15: 93–96, 1979.
 29. Evanich, M. J., M. J. Franco, and R. V. Lourenço. Force output of the diaphragm as a function of phrenic nerve firing rate and lung volume. J. Appl. Physiol. 35: 208–212, 1973.
 30. Fenn, W. O. Quoted in the preface by E. J. M. Campbell. The Respiratory Muscles and the Mechanics of Breathing. London: Lloyd‐Luke, 1958.
 31. Floyd, W. F., and P. H. S. Silver. Electromyographic study of patterns of activity of the anterior abdominal wall muscles in man. J. Anat. 84: 132–145, 1950.
 32. Fluck, D. C. Chest movements in hemiplegia. Clin. Sci. 31: 382–388, 1966.
 33. Fritts, H. W. On the nature of the diaphragm: the evolution of three viewpoints. Trans. Am. Clin. Climatol. Assoc. 87: 16–25, 1976.
 34. Goldman, M. D., A. Grassino, J. Mead, and T. A. Sears. Mechanics of the human diaphragm during voluntary contraction: dynamics. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 44: 840–848, 1978.
 35. Goldman, M. D., P. Kosch, E. N. Bruce, J. Mead, M. Altose, and N. S. Cherniack. Neural coupling between diaphragm and parasternal intercostal muscles (Abstract). Physiologist 22 (4): 45, 1979.
 36. Goldman, M. D., and J. Mead. Mechanical interaction between the diaphragm and rib cage. J. Appl. Physiol. 35: 197–204, 1973.
 37. Grassino, A., M. D. Goldman, J. Mead, and T. A. Sears. Mechanics of the human diaphragm during voluntary contraction: statics. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 44: 829–839, 1978.
 38. Grimby, G., M. Goldman, and J. Mead. Respiratory muscle action inferred from rib cage and abdominal V‐P partitioning. J. Appl. Physiol. 41: 739–751, 1976.
 39. Hamberger, G. E. De respirationis mechanismo. Jena, 1727.
 40. Higgenbottam, T., D. Allen, L. Loh, and T. J. H. Clark. Abdominal wall movement in normals and patients with hemidiaphragmatic and bilateral diaphragmatic palsy. Thorax 32: 589–595, 1977.
 41. Joly, H., and P. A. Vincent. Rôle respiratoire des muscles scalènes et intercostaux étudiés en fonction de la collapsothérapie pulmonaire. Arch. Med. Chir. Appar. Respir. 12: 392–404, 1937.
 42. Jordanoglou, J. Rib movement in health, kyphoscoliosis and ankylosing spondylitis. Thorax 24: 407–414, 1969.
 43. Jordanoglou, J. Vector analysis of rib movement. Respir. Physiol. 10: 109–120, 1970.
 44. Keith, A. The nature of the mammalian diaphragm and pleural cavities. J. Anat. Physiol 39: 243–284, 1904.
 45. Kim, M. J., W. S. Druz, J. Danon, W. Machnach, and J. T. Sharp. Mechanics of the canine diaphragm. J. Appl. Physiol. 41: 369–382, 1976.
 46. Konno, K., and J. Mead. Measurement of the separate volume changes of rib cage and abdomen during breathing. J. Appl. Physiol. 22: 407–422, 1967.
 47. Konno, K., and J. Mead. Static volume‐pressure characteristics of the rib cage and abdomen. J. Appl. Physiol. 24: 544–548, 1968.
 48. Kreitzer, S. M., N. T. Feldman, N. A. Saunders, and R. H. Ingram, Jr. Bilateral diaphragmatic paralysis with hypercapnic respiratory failure. A physiologic assessment. Am. J. Med. 65: 89–95. 1978.
 49. Landau, B. R., K. Akert, and T. S. Roberts. Studies on the innervation of the diaphragm. J. Comp. Neurol. 119: 1–10, 1962.
 50. Langman, J. Medical Embryology. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 1975, p. 305–307.
 51. Loring, S. H., and J. Mead. Action of the diaphragm on the rib cage inferred from a force‐balance analysis. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol 53: 756–760, 1982.
 52. Lourenço, R. V., N. S. Cherniack, J. R. Malm, and A. P. Fishman. Nervous output from the respiratory center during obstructed breathing. J. Appl. Physiol. 21: 527–533, 1966.
 53. Macklem, P. T., D. Gross, A. Grassino, and C. Roussos. Partitioning of inspiratory pressure swings between diaphragm and intercostal/accessory muscles. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 44: 200–208, 1978.
 54. Macklem, P. T., D. M. Macklem, and A. De Troyer. A model of inspiratory muscle mechanics. J. Appl Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 55: 547–557, 1983.
 55. Marshall, R. Relationships between stimulus and work of breathing at different lung volumes. J. Appl. Physiol. 17: 917–921, 1962.
 56. Martin, J. G., and A. De Troyer. The behaviour of the abdominal muscles during inspiratory mechanical loading. Respir. Physiol 50: 63–73, 1982.
 57. Mead, J. Functional significance of the area of apposition of diaphragm to rib cage. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 119: 31–32, 1979.
 58. Mead, J., and S. H. Loring. Analysis of volume displacement and length changes of the diaphragm during breathing. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol 53: 750–755, 1982.
 59. Minh, V.D., G. F. Dolan, R. F. Konopka, and K. M. Moser. Effect of hyperinflation on inspiratory function of the diaphragm. J. Appl. Physiol. 40: 67–73, 1976.
 60. Monges, H., J. Salducci, and B. Naudy. Dissociation between the electrical activity of the diaphragmatic dome and crura muscular fibers during esophageal distension, vomiting and eructation. An electromyographic study in the dog. J. Physiol. Paris 74: 541–554, 1978.
 61. Mortola, J. P., and G. Sant'Ambrogio. Motion of the rib cage and the abdomen in tetraplegic patients. Clin. Sci. Mol. Med. 54: 25–32, 1978.
 62. Newsom Davis, J., M. Goldman, L. Loh, and M. Casson. Diaphragm function and alveolar hypoventilation. Q. J. Med. 45: 87–100, 1976.
 63. Pengelly, L. D., A. M. Alderson, and J. Milic‐Emili. Mechanics of the diaphragm. J. Appl. Physiol. 30: 797–805, 1971.
 64. Raper, A. J., W. T. Thompson, Jr., W. Shapiro, and J. L. Patterson, Jr. Scalene and sternomastoid muscle function. J. Appl. Physiol. 21: 497–502, 1966.
 65. Riley, D. A., and A. J. Berger. A regional histochemical and electromyographic analysis of the cat respiratory diaphragm. Exp. Neurol. 66: 636–649, 1979.
 66. Rosenblueth, A., J. Alanis, and G. Pilar. The accessory motor innervation of the diaphragm. Arch. Int. Physiol. Biochim. 69: 19–25, 1961.
 67. Sant'Ambrogio, G., D. T. Frazier, M. F. Wilson, and E. Agostoni. Motor innervation and pattern of activity of cat diaphragm. J. Appl. Physiol. 18: 43–46, 1963.
 68. Sant'Ambrogio, G., and F. Saibene. Contractile properties of the diaphragm in some mammals. Respir. Physiol. 10: 349–357, 1970.
 69. Saunders, N. A., S. M. Kreitzer, and R. H. Ingram, Jr. Rib cage deformation during static inspiratory efforts. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 46: 1071–1075, 1979.
 70. Sears, T. A. Efferent discharges in alpha and fusimotor fibres of intercostal nerves of the cat. J. Physiol. London 174: 295–315, 1964.
 71. Sharp, J. T., N. B. Goldberg, W. S. Druz, and J. Danon. Relative contributions of rib cage and abdomen to breathing in normal subjects. J. Appl. Physiol. 39: 608–618, 1975.
 72. Skatrub, J., C. Iber, W. McHugh, H. Rasmussen, and D. Nichols. Determinants of hypoventilation during wakefulness and sleep in diaphragmatic paralysis. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 121: 587–593, 1980.
 73. Strohl, K. P., J. Mead, R. B. Banzett, S. H. Loring, and P. C. Kosch. Regional differences in abdominal muscle activity during various maneuvers in humans. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 51: 1471–1476, 1981.
 74. Taylor, A. The contribution of the intercostal muscles to the effort of respiration in man. J. Physiol. London 151: 390–402, 1960.
 75. Tusiewicz, K., H. Moldofsky, A. C. Bryan, and M. H. Bryan. Mechanics of the rib cage and diaphragm during sleep. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 43: 600–602, 1977.
 76. Urmey, W. F., S. H. Loring, J. Mead, R. Brown, A. S. Slutsky, M. Sarkarati, and A. Rossier. Rib cage mechanics in quadriplegic patients (Abstract). Physiologist 24 (4): 97, 1981.

Contact Editor

Submit a note to the editor about this article by filling in the form below.

* Required Field

Article Title: Action of the Respiratory Muscles
 

How to Cite

André de Troyer, Stephen H. Loring. Action of the Respiratory Muscles. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 12: Handbook of Physiology, The Respiratory System, Mechanics of Breathing: 443-461. First published in print 1986. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp030326