Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library

Gas Exchange in Hypoxia, Apnea, and Hyperoxia

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Hypoxia
1.1 Critical Partial Pressure of O2
1.2 Oxygen Demand
1.3 Regional Gas Exchange During Hypoxia
2 Apnea
2.1 Aquatic Mammals
2.2 Humans
2.3 Other Terrestrial Mammals
3 Hyperoxia
3.1 Effects at Rest
3.2 Effects During Exercise
4 Summary
References
 1. Adams, R. P., and H. G. Welch. Oxygen uptake, acid‐base status, and performance with varied inspired oxygen fractions. J. Appl. Physiol. 49: 863-868, 1980.
 2. Angell, J. E., and M. James De B. Daly. Cardiovascular responses in apnoeic asphyxia: role of arterial chemoreceptors and the modification of their effects by a pulmonary vagal inflation reflex. J. Physiol. Lond. 201: 87-104, 1969.
 3. Asmussen, E., and M. Nielsen. Studies on the regulation of respiration in heavy work. Acta Physiol. Scand. 12: 171-188, 1946.
 4. Asmussen, E., and M. Nielsen. The cardiac output in rest and work at low and high oxygen pressures. Acta Physiol. Scand. 35: 73-83, 1955.
 5. Bain, W. H., J. R. Lancaster, and W. E. Adams. Pulmonary vascular changes with increased oxygen tensions. In: Hyperbaric Oxygenation, edited by I. M. Lendingham. Edinburgh: Livingstone, 1965.
 6. Bannister, R. G., and D. J. C. Cunningham. The effects on the respiration and performance during exercise of adding oxygen to the inspired gas. J. Physiol. Lond. 125: 118-137, 1954.
 7. Barclay, J. K., C. M. Boulianne, B. A. Wilson, and S. J. Tiffin. Interaction of hyperoxia and blood flow during fatigue of canine skeletal muscle in situ. J. Appl. Physiol. 47: 1018-1024, 1979.
 8. Bartels, H., H.‐P. Koepchen, L. Luhning, M. Mochizuki, and I. Witt. Die alveolar‐arterielle O2‐Druckdifferenz bei Ruhe und arbeit unter Hyperoxie (50% O2). Pfluegers Arch. Gesamte Physiol. Menschen Tiere 261: 534-542, 1955.
 9. Bergofsky, E. H., and P. Bertun. Response of regional circulations to hyperoxia. J. Appl. Physiol. 21: 567-572, 1966.
 10. Bicher, H. T. Brain oxygen autoregulation: a protective reflex to hypoxia? Microvasc. Res. 8: 291-313, 1974.
 11. Bird, A. D., and A. B. M. Telfer. The effect of oxygen at 1 and 2 atmospheres on resting forearm blood flow. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 123: 260-268, 1966.
 12. Bond, R. F., E. S. Manning, N. M. Gonzalez, R. R. Gonzalez, Jr., and V. E. Becker. Myocardial and skeletal muscle responses to hemorrhage and shock during α‐adrenergic block‐ade. Am. J. Physiol. 225: 247-257, 1973.
 13. Bourdeau‐Martini, J., C. L. Odoroff, and C. R. Honig. Dual effect of oxygen on magnitude and uniformity of coronary intercapillary distance. Am. J. Physiol. 226: 800-810, 1974.
 14. Bryan, A. C., L. G. Bentivoglio, F. Beerel, H. MacLeish, A. Zidulka, and D. V. Bates. Factors affecting regional distribution of ventilation and perfusion in the lung. J. Appl. Physiol. 19: 395-402, 1964.
 15. Cain, S. M. Effect of Pco2 on the relation of lactate and excess lactate to O2 deficit. Am. J. Physiol. 214: 1322-1327, 1968.
 16. Cain, S. M. Diminution of lactate rise during hypoxia by Pco2 and ã‐adrenergic blockade. Am. J. Physiol. 217: 110-116, 1969.
 17. Cain, S. M. Increased oxygen uptake with passive hyperventilation of dogs. J. Appl. Physiol. 28: 4-7, 1970.
 18. Cain, S. M. Relative rates of arterial lactate and oxygen‐deficit accumulation in hypoxic dogs. Am. J. Physiol. 224: 1190-1194, 1973.
 19. Cain, S. M. Arterial lactate responses in dogs made apneic or breathing nitrogen. J. Appl. Physiol. 42: 39-43, 1977.
 20. Cain, S. M. pH effects on lactate and excess lactate in relation to O2 deficit in hypoxic dogs. J. Appl. Physiol. 42: 44-49, 1977.
 21. Cain, S. M. Oxygen delivery and uptake in dogs during anemic and hypoxic hypoxia. J. Appl. Physiol. 42: 228-234, 1977.
 22. Cain, S. M. Supply dependency of oxygen uptake in ARDS: myth or reality? Am. J. Med. Sci. 288: 119-124, 1984.
 23. Cain, S. M., and C. K. Chapler. O2 extraction by hind limb versus whole dog during anemic hypoxia. J. Appl. Physiol. 45: 966-970, 1978.
 24. Cain, S. M., and C. K. Chapler. Oxygen extraction by canine hindlimb during hypoxic hypoxia. J. Appl. Physiol. 46: 1023-1028, 1979.
 25. Caldwell, P. R. B., W. L. Lee, Jr., H. S. Schildkraut, and E. R. Archibald. Changes in lung volume, diffusing capacity, and blood gases in men breathing oxygen. J. Appl. Physiol. 21: 1477-1483, 1966.
 26. Chapler, C. K., and S. M. Cain. Blood flow and O2 uptake in dog hindlimb with anemia, norepinephrine, and propranolol. J. Appl. Physiol. 51: 565-570, 1981.
 27. Chapler, C. K., S. M. Cain, and W. N. Stainsby. Blood flow and oxygen uptake in isolated canine skeletal muscle during acute anemia. J. Appl. Physiol. 46: 1035-1038, 1979.
 28. Chapler, C. K., S. M. Cain, and W. N. Stainsby. The effects of hyperoxia on oxygen uptake during acute anemia. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 62: 809-814, 1984.
 29. Cherniack, N. S., G. S. Longobardo, F. P. Palermo, and M. Heymann. Dynamics of oxygen stores changes following an alteration in ventilation. J. Appl. Physiol. 24: 809-816, 1968.
 30. Clark, J. M., and C. J. Lambertsen. Alveolar‐arterial O2 differences in man at 0.2,1.0, 2.0, and 3.5 Ata inspired Po2. J. Appl. Physiol. 30: 753-763, 1971.
 31. Cohen, R. D., and R. Simpson. Lactate metabolism. Anesthesiology 43: 661-673, 1975.
 32. Cole, R. B., and J. M. Bishop. Variation in alveolar‐arterial O2 tension difference at high levels of alveolar O2 tension. J. Appl. Physiol. 22: 685-693, 1967.
 33. Craig, A. B., Jr., and W. L. Medo. Oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production during breath‐hold diving. J. Appl. Physiol. 24: 190-202, 1968.
 34. Danek, S. J., J. P. Lynch, J. G. Weg, and D. R. Dantzker. The dependence of oxygen uptake on oxygen delivery in the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 122: 387-395, 1980.
 35. Daniell, H. B. Coronary flow alterations on myocardial contractility, oxygen extraction, and oxygen consumption. Am. J. Physiol. 225: 1020-1025, 1973.
 36. Dantzker, D. R., P. D. Wagner, and J. B. West. Instability of lung units with low VA/Q ratios during O2 breathing. J. Appl. Physiol. 38: 886-895, 1975.
 37. Davies, C. T. M., and A. J. Sargeant. Physiological responses to one‐ and two‐leg exercise breathing air and 45% oxygen. J. Appl. Physiol. 36: 142-148, 1974.
 38. Deneke, S. M., and B. L. Fanburg. Normobaric oxygen toxicity of the lung. N. Engl. J. Med. 303: 76-86, 1980.
 39. Duling, B. R. Microvascular responses to alterations in oxygen tension. Circ. Res. 31: 481-489, 1972.
 40. Duling, B. R. Oxygen, metabolism, and microcirculatory control. In: Microcirculation, edited by G. Kaley and B. M. Altura. Baltimore, MD: University Park, 1978, vol. 2, p. 401-429.
 41. Durán, W. N., and E. M. Renkin. Oxygen consumption and blood flow in resting mammalian skeletal muscle. Am. J. Physiol. 226: 173-177, 1974.
 42. Eggers, G. W. N., Jr., H. W. Paley, J. J. Leonard, and J. V. Warren. Hemodynamic responses to oxygen breathing in man. J. Appl. Physiol. 17: 75-79, 1962.
 43. Ekblom, B., R. Huot, E. M. Stein, and A. T. Thorstens‐son. Effect of changes in arterial oxygen content on circulation and physical performance. J. Appl. Physiol. 39: 71-75, 1975.
 44. Elsner, R., B. A. Gooden, and S. M. Robinson. Arterial blood gas changes and the diving response in man. Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci. 49: 435-444, 1971.
 45. Ferrante, F. L. Oxygen conservation during submergence apnea in a diving mammal, the nutria. Am. J. Physiol. 218: 363-371, 1970.
 46. Fitzpatrick, J. H., Jr., D. D. Gilboe, L. R. Drewes, and A. L. Betz. Relationship of cerebral oxygen uptake to EEG frequency in isolated canine brain. Am. J. Physiol. 231: 1840-1846, 1976.
 47. Garcia, A. C., Y. L. Lai, B. A. Attebery, and E. B. Brown, Jr. Lactate and pyruvate accumulation during hypocapnia. Respir. Physiol. 12: 371-380, 1971.
 48. Granger, H. J., A. H. Goodman, and D. N. Granger. Role of resistance and exchange vessels in local microvascular control of skeletal muscle oxygenation in the dog. Circ. Res. 38: 379-385, 1976.
 49. Halmagyi, D. F. J., A. H. Goodman, and I. R. Neering. Hindlimb blood flow and oxygen usage in hemorrhagic shock. J. Appl. Physiol. 27: 508-513, 1969.
 50. Haugaard, N. Cellular mechanisms of oxygen toxicity. Physiol. Rev. 48: 311-373, 1968.
 51. Heistad, D. D., and R. C. Wheeler. Simulated diving during hypoxia in man. J. Appl. Physiol. 28: 652-656, 1970.
 52. Hesser, C. M., B. Katsaros, and G. Matell. Pulmonary and tissue gas exchange during breath holding with oxygen. Respir. Physiol. 5: 78-90, 1968.
 53. Hill, A. V., C. N. H. Long, and H. Lupton. Muscular exercise, lactic acid, and the supply and utilization of oxygen. Pt. IV. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 97: 84-96, 1924.
 54. Hochachka, P. W. Living Without Oxygen: Closed and Open Systems in Hypoxia Tolerance. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1980, p. 145-169.
 55. Hong, S. K., Y. C. Lin, D. A. Lally, B. J. B. Yim, N. Kominami, P. W. Hong, and T. O. Moore. Alveolar gas exchanges and cardiovascular functions during breath holding with air. J. Appl. Physiol. 30: 540-547, 1971.
 56. Hong, S. K., T. O. Moore, G. Seto, H. K. Park, W. R. Hiatt, and E. M. Bernauer. Lung volumes and apneic bradycardia in divers. J. Appl. Physiol. 29: 172-176, 1970.
 57. Honig, C. R. Hypoxia in skeletal muscle at rest and during the transition to steady work. Microvasc. Res. 13: 377-398, 1977.
 58. Honig, C. R., J. L. Frierson, and C. N. Nelson. O2 transport and Vo2 in resting muscle: significance for tissue‐capillary exchange. Am. J. Physiol. 220: 357-363, 1971.
 59. Horstman, D. H., M. Gleser, and J. Delehunt. Effects of altering O2 delivery on Vo2 of isolated, working muscle. Am. J. Physiol. 230: 327-334, 1976.
 60. Hughes, R. L., R. T. Mathie, D. Campbell, and W. Fitch. Systemic hypoxia and hyperoxia, and liver blood flow and oxygen consumption in the greyhound. Pfluegers Arch. 381: 151-157, 1979.
 61. Jacobson, I., A. M. Harper, and D. G. McDowall. The effects of oxygen at 1 and 2 atmospheres on the blood flow and oxygen uptake of the cerebral cortex. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 119: 737-742, 1964.
 62. Jan, K. M., J. Heldman, and S. Chien. Coronary hemodynamics and oxygen utilization after hematocrit variations in hemorrhage. Am. J. Physiol. 239 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 8): H326-H332, 1980.
 63. Johnson, L. F., Jr., J. R. Neville, and R. W. Bancroft. The effect of decreased barometric pressure on oxygen consumption. Aerosp. Med. 34: 97-100, 1963.
 64. Kaijser, L. Limiting factors for aerobic muscle performance. The influence of varying oxygen pressure and temperature. Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl. 346: 1-96, 1970.
 65. Karetzky, M. S., J. F. Keighley, and J. C. Mithoefer. The effect of oxygen administration on gas exchange and cardiopulmonary function in normal subjects. Respir. Physiol. 12: 361-370, 1971.
 66. Kawakami, Y., B. H. Natelson, and A. B. Du Bois. Cardiovascular effects of face immersion and factors affecting diving reflex in man. J. Appl. Physiol. 23: 964-970, 1967.
 67. Kendrick, J. E., S. J. De Haan, and J. D. Parke. Regulation of blood flow to respiratory muscles during hypoxia and hypercapnia. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 166: 157-161, 1981.
 68. Kenmure, A. C. F., W. R. Murdoch, I. Hutton, and A. J. V. Cameron. Hemodynamic effects of oxygen at 1 and 2 Ata pressure in healthy subjects. J. Appl. Physiol. 32: 223-226, 1972.
 69. Kerem, D., and R. Elsner. Cerebral tolerance to asphyxial hypoxia in the dog. Am. J. Physiol. 225: 593-600, 1973.
 70. Kooyman, G. L., D. H. Kerem, W. B. Campbell, and J. J. Wright. Pulmonary gas exchange in freely diving Weddell seals. Respir. Physiol. 17: 283-290, 1973.
 71. Kooyman, G. L., J. P. Schroeder, D. M. Denison, D. D. Hammond, J. J. Wright, and W. P. Bergman. Blood nitrogen tensions of seals during simulated deep dives. Am. J. Physiol. 223: 1016-1020, 1972.
 72. Kooyman, G. L., E. A. Wahrenbrack, M. A. Castellini, R. W. David, and E. E. Sinnett. Aerobic and anaerobic metabolism during voluntary diving in Weddell seals: evidence of preferred pathways from blood chemistry and behavior. J. Comp. Physiol. 138: 335-346, 1980.
 73. Lambertsen, C. J., S. G. Owen, H. Wendel, M. W. Stroud, A. A. Lurie, W. Lochner, and G. F. Clark. Respiratory and cerebral circulatory control during exercise at .21 and 2.0 atmospheres inspired Po2. J. Appl. Physiol. 14: 966-982, 1959.
 74. Larett, W. W. Control of hepatic and intestinal blood flow: effect of isovolaemic haemodilution on blood flow and oxygen uptake in the intact liver and intestines. J. Physiol. Lond. 265: 313-326, 1977.
 75. Larson, C. P., Jr., and J. W. Severinghaus. Postural variations in dead space and CO2 gradients breathing air and O2. J. Appl. Physiol. 17: 417-420, 1962.
 76. Lenfant, C. Measurement of factors impairing gas exchange in man with hyperbaric pressure. J. Appl. Physiol. 19: 189-194, 1964.
 77. Lenfant, C. Arterial‐alveolar difference in Pco2 during air and oxygen breathing. J. Appl. Physiol. 21: 1356-1362, 1966.
 78. Lin, Y. C., and D. G. Baker. Cardiac output and its distribution during diving in the rat. Am. J. Physiol. 228: 733-737, 1975.
 79. Lin, Y. C., D. A. Lally, T. O. Moore, and S. K. Hong. Physiological and conventional breath‐hold breaking points. J. Appl. Physiol. 37: 291-296, 1974.
 80. Lin, Y. C., T. O. Moore, J. J. McNamara, and S. K. Hong. Oxygen consumption and conservation during apnea in the anesthetized dog. Respir. Physiol. 24: 313-324, 1975.
 81. Lindbom, L., R. F. Tuma, and K. E. Arfors. Influence of oxygen on perfused capillary density and capillary red cell velocity in rabbit skeletal muscle. Microvasc. Res. 19: 197-208, 1980.
 82. Lübbers, D. W. Tissue oxygen supply and critical oxygen pressure. In: Oxygen Transport to Tissue, edited by A. G. B. Kovach, E. Dora, M. Kessler, and I. A. Silver. New York: Pergamon, 1980, vol. 25, p. 3-11. (Proc. Int. Congr. Physiol. Sci., 28th, Budapest, 1980.)
 83. Lübbers, D. W., and M. Kessler. Oxygen supply and rate of tissue respiration. In: Oxygen Transport in Blood and Tissues, edited by D. W. Lübbers, U. C. Luft, G. Thews, and E. Witzleb. Stuttgart: Thieme, 1968, p. 90-99.
 84. Lutz, J., H. Henrich, and E. Bauereisen. Oxygen supply and uptake in the liver and intestine. Pfluegers Arch. 360: 7-15, 1975.
 85. MacMillan, V., and B. K. Siesjö. Critical oxygen tensions in the brain. Acta Physiol. Scand. 82: 412-414, 1971.
 86. Margaria, R., E. Camporesi, P. Aghemo, and G. Sassi. The effect of O2 breathing on maximal aerobic power. Pfluegers Arch. 336: 225-235, 1972.
 87. McDowall, D. G., I. M. Ledingham, and S. Tindal. Alveolar‐arterial gradients for oxygen at 1, 2, and 3 atmospheres absolute. J. Appl. Physiol. 24: 324-329, 1968.
 88. Mills, E., and F. F. Jöbsis. Mitochondrial respiratory chain of carotid body and chemoreceptor response to changes in oxygen tension. J. Neurophysiol. 35: 405-428, 1972.
 89. Mithoefer, J. C. Breath holding. In: Handbook of Physiology. Respiration, edited by W. O. Fenn and H. Rahn. Washington, DC: Am. Physiol. Soc, 1965, sect. 3, vol. II, chapt. 38, p. 1011-1025.
 90. Murphy, B., W. M. Zapol, and P. W. Hochachka. Metabolic activities of heart, lung, and brain during diving and recovery in the Weddell seal. J. Appl. Physiol. 48: 596-605, 1980.
 91. Nahas, G. G., L. Triner, H. S. Small, W. M. Manger, and D. V. Habif. Alterations in O2 uptake following hemorrhage in dogs. Am. J. Physiol. 210: 1009-1014, 1966.
 92. Ohta, Y., S. H. Song, A. C. Groom, and L. E. Farhi. Is inert gas washout from the tissues limited by diffusion? J. Appl. Physiol. 45: 903-907, 1978.
 93. Packer, B. S., M. Altman, C. E. Cross, H. V. Murdaugh, Jr., J. M. Linta, and E. D. Robin. Adaptations to diving in the harbor seal: oxygen stores and supply. Am. J. Physiol. 217: 903-906, 1969.
 94. Paulev, P. E. Respiratory and cardiovascular effects of breath‐holding. Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl. 324: 1-116, 1969.
 95. Pirnay, F., M. Lamy, J. Dujardin, R. Deroanne, and J. M. Petit. Analysis of femoral venous blood during maximum muscular exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 33: 289-292, 1972.
 96. Pirnay, F., R. Marechal, R. Dujardin, M. Lamy, R. Deroanne, and J. M. Petit. Exercise during hyperoxia and hyperbaric oxygenation. Int. Z. Angew. Physiol. Einschl. Arbeitsphysiol. 31: 259-268, 1973.
 97. Powers, E. R., and W. J. Powell, Jr. Effect of arterial hypoxia on myocardial oxygen consumption. Circ. Res. 33: 749-756, 1973.
 98. Powers, S. R., Jr., R. Mannal, M. Neclerio, M. English, C. Marr, R. Leather, H. Ueda, G. Williams, W. Custead, and R. Dutton. Physiologic consequences of positive end‐expiratory pressure (PEEP) ventilation. Ann. Surg. 178: 265-272, 1973.
 99. Poyart, C., and G. G. Nahas. Inhibition of catecholamine‐induced calorigenesis and lipolysis by hypercapnic acidosis. Am. J. Physiol. 211: 161-168, 1966.
 100. Puy, R. J. M., R. W. Hyde, A. B. Fisher, J. M. Clark, J. Dickson, and C. J. Lambertsen. Alterations in the pulmonary capillary bed during early O2 toxicity in man. J. Appl. Physiol. 24: 537-543, 1968.
 101. Racker, E. From Pasteur to Mitchell: a hundred years of bioenergetics. Federation Proc. 39: 210-215, 1980.
 102. Restorff, W. V., B. Hofling, J. Holtz, and E. Bassenge. Effect of increased blood fluidity through hemodilution on coronary circulation at rest and during exercise in dogs. Pfluegers Arch. 357: 15-24, 1975.
 103. Ridgeway, S. H., and R. Howard. Dolphin lung collapse and intramuscular circulation during free diving: evidence from nitrogen washout. Science Wash. DC 206: 1182-1183, 1979.
 104. Robin, E. D. Of men and mitochondria: coping with hypoxic dysoxia. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 122: 517-531, 1980.
 105. Robin, E. D., H. V. Murdaugh, Jr., W. Pyron, E. Weiss, and P. Soteres. Adaptations to diving in the harbor seal— gas exchange and ventilatory response to CO2. Am. J. Physiol. 205: 1175-1177, 1963.
 106. Rosenberg, E., and L. D. MacLean. Effect of high oxygen tensions on diffusing capacity for CO and Krogh's K. J. Appl. Physiol. 23: 11-17, 1967.
 107. Saunders, K. B., D. M. Band, P. Ebden, J. P. Van der Hoff, D. J. Maberley, and S. J. G. Semple. Acid‐base status and gas exchange in the anesthetized dog breathing pure oxygen. Respiration 29: 305-316, 1972.
 108. Scholander, P. F. Animals in aquatic environments: diving mammals and birds. In Handbook of Physiology. Adaptation to the Environment, edited by D. B. Dill, and E. F. Adolph. Washington, DC: Am. Physiol. Soc, 1964, sect. 4, chapt. 45, p. 729-739.
 109. Seeherman, H. J., C. R. Taylor, G. M. O. Maloiy, and R. B. Armstrong. Design of the mammalian respiratory system. II. Measuring maximum aerobic capacity. Respir. Physiol. 44: 11-23, 1981.
 110. Shepherd, A. P. Intestinal O2 consumption and 86Rb extraction during arterial hypoxia. Am. J. Physiol. 234 (Endocrinol. Metab. Gastrointest. Physiol. 3): E248-E251, 1978.
 111. Stainsby, W. N., and A. B. Otis. Blood flow, blood oxygen tension, oxygen uptake, and oxygen transport in skeletal muscle. Am. J. Physiol. 206: 858-866, 1964.
 112. Stanek, K. A., F. J. Nagle, G. E. Bisgard, and W. C. Byrnes. Effect of hyperoxia on oxygen consumption in exercising ponies. J. Appl. Physiol. 46: 1115-1118, 1979.
 113. Tashkin, D. P., P. J. Goldstein, and D. H. Simmons. Hepatic lactate uptake during decreased liver perfusion and hypoxemia. Am. J. Physiol. 223: 968-974, 1972.
 114. Taunton, J. E., E. W. Banister, T. R. Patrick, P. Oforsagd, and W. R. Duncan. Physical work capacity in hyperbaric environments and conditions of hyperoxia. J. Appl. Physiol. 28: 421-427, 1970.
 115. Tenney, S. M. A theoretical analysis of the relationship between venous blood and mean tissue oxygen pressures. Respir. Physiol. 20: 283-296, 1974.
 116. Tibes, U., and J. Stegemann. Das Verhalten der endexpir‐atorischen Atemgasdrucke, der O2‐Aufnahme, und CO2‐abgabe nach einfacher Apnoe im Wasser, an Land und apnoeischem Tauchen. Pfluegers Arch. 311: 300-311, 1969.
 117. Wagner, P. D., R. B. Lararuso, R. R. Uhl, and J. B. West. Continuous distributions of ventilation‐perfusion ratios in normal subjects breathing air and 100% O2. J. Clin. Invest. 54: 54-68, 1974.
 118. Weglicki, W. B., R. E. Whalen, H. K. Thompson, Jr., and H. D. McIntosh. Effects of hyperbaric oxygenation on excess lactate production in exercising dogs. Am. J. Physiol. 210: 473-477, 1966.
 119. Weiss, H. R., J. A. Cohen, and L. A. McPherson. Blood flow and relative tissue Po2 of brain and muscle: effect of various gas mixtures. Am. J. Physiol. 230: 839-844, 1976.
 120. Welch, H. G., F. Bonde‐Petersen, T. Graham, K. Klausen, and N. Secher. Effects of hyperoxia on leg blood flow and metabolism during exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 42: 385-390, 1977.
 121. Welch, H. G., and P. K. Pedersen. Measurement of metabolic rate in hyperoxia. J. Appl. Physiol. 51: 725-731, 1981.
 122. Whalen, R. E., H. A. Saltzman, D. H. Holloway, Jr., H. D. McIntosh, H. O. Sieker, and I. W. Brown, Jr. Cardiovascular and blood gas responses to hyperbaric oxygenation. Am. J. Cardiol. 15: 638-646, 1965.
 123. Whalen, W. J., D. Buerk, and C. A. Thuning. Blood flow‐limited oxygen consumption in resting cat skeletal muscle. Am. J. Physiol. 224: 763-768, 1973.
 124. Wilson, B. A., and W. N. Stainsby. Effects of O2 breathing on R.Q., blood flow, and developed tension in in situ dog muscle. Med. Sci. Sports 10: 167-170, 1978.
 125. Wilson, B. A., H. G. Welch, and J. N. Liles. Effects of hyperoxic gas mixtures on energy metabolism during prolonged work. J. Appl. Physiol. 39: 267-271, 1975.
 126. Zapol, W. M., G. C. Liggins, R. C. Schneider, L. Qvist, M. T. Snider, R. K. Creasy, and P. W. Hochachka. Regional blood flow during simulated diving in the conscious Weddell seal. J. Appl. Physiol. 47: 968-973, 1979.
 127. Zborowska‐Sluis, D. T., and J. B. Dossetor. Hyperlactatemia of hyperventilation. J. Appl. Physiol. 22: 746-755, 1967.
 128. Zimpfer, M., S. P. Sit, and S. F. Vatner. Effects of anesthesia on the canine carotid chemoreceptor reflex. Circ. Res. 48: 400-406, 1981.

Contact Editor

Submit a note to the editor about this article by filling in the form below.

* Required Field

How to Cite

Stephen M. Cain. Gas Exchange in Hypoxia, Apnea, and Hyperoxia. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 13: Handbook of Physiology, The Respiratory System, Gas Exchange: 403-420. First published in print 1987. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp030419