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Control of Body Temperature

Jan A. J. Stolwijk, James D. Hardy

10.1002/cphy.cp090104

Source: Supplement 26: Handbook of Physiology, Reactions to Environmental Agents

Originally published: 1977

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Development of the Model
2 Controlled System
2.1 Heat Loss to the Environment
2.2 Heat Production
3 Controlling System
3.1 Temperature Sensing System
3.2 Integrating System
3.3 Effector System
3.4 Heat Production — Work and Chill
3.5 Evaporative Heat Loss and Sweating
3.6 Blood Flow — Vasomotor
4 Performance of the Thermoregulation Model for Human Beings at Rest
5 Thermoregulation During Exercise
6 Evaluation of Model Performance
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Environmental temperatures and corresponding zones of human thermoregulatory activity indicating the limited capacities of physiological thermoregulation (0–50°C) relative to behavioral control. Environments with extreme temperatures (left) and human responses (right).

Adapted from Hardy 19
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Generalized scheme of an automatic regulating system.

From Stolwijk & Hardy 48
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Representation of passive model of six segments indicating method of identification: 1, head; 2, trunk; 3, arms; 4, hands; 5, legs; 6, feet.
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Schematic representation of heat exchange for the four compartments of Segment I. (For symbols see Table 6, Appendix A.)

From Stolwijk 45
Figure 5. Figure 5.

5a. Effect of local skin temperature, Tsj, on the sweat rate from a small area of the thigh as the mean skin temperature, , was increased; internal temperature was constant. 5b. Effect of rate of fall of mean skin temperature, (dTsk)/(dt), on the linear response of sweating, shown in Figure 5a, as the skin is cooled.

From Nadel et al. 32
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Increase in metabolic rate as affected by mean skin and internal body temperatures. , mean skin temperature; Tin, internal temperature.

From Nadel et al. 33
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Rates of evaporative heat loss from the skin in quasisteady states, as a function of internal, Tin, and mean skin, , temperatures. Data from resting men, ▪; data from exercising men, ▪.
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Plot of the output from the central controller for sweating as affected by the mean skin temperature, , and internal temperature, Tin, without the local temperature effect on the sweat rate.
Figure 9. Figure 9.

Peripheral conductance (core to skin) as a function of internal (Tint) and mean skin temperature () estimated from experiments in the quasi‐steady state for conditions including heat exposure at rest and exercise at temperatures 10–30°C. Values of “effective blood flow” (right) are estimated from values of tissue conductance.
Figure 10. Figure 10.

Estimates of peripheral conductance and effective skin blood flow with effects of local temperature removed. Tin, internal temperatures; , skin temperature.
Figure 11. Figure 11.

Comparison of physiological data with theoretical values derived from model. Subject clad in shorts sat for 30 min in a neutral environment, 30°C, and transferred quickly to a room at 48°C for 2 h. A final hour was spent at 30°C. Solid lines, experimental data; dashed lines, computed values.

From Stolwijk & Hardy 47
Figure 12. Figure 12.

Experiment in which subject clad in shorts sat for 1 h in a 43°C environment followed by 2 h at 18°C and 1 h at 43°C. Solid line, experimental data; dashed line, model calculations; Tr, rectal temperature; Te, tympanic membrane temperature; Ev, evaporative heat loss; W · m−2; M, metabolic rate, W · m−2.

From Hardy & Stolwijk 21
Figure 13. Figure 13.

Experimental results for minimally dressed subject during three 30‐min periods of work on bicycle ergometer at 30°C (RH = 30%, air velocity 0.1 m · s−1). Solid lines, experimental data; dashed lines, calculated results; Tr, rectal temperature; , mean skin temperature.

From Gagge et al. 17
Figure 14. Figure 14.

Experimental results and calculated values for exercise experiment at 20°C. , mean skin temperatures; Tr, rectal temperature.

From Gagge et al. 17
Figure 15. Figure 15.

Flow diagram for various steps to implement model of thermoregulation in human beings.

From Stolwijk 45
Figure 16. Figure 16.

FORTRAN source program for model of thermoregulation.


Figure 1.

Environmental temperatures and corresponding zones of human thermoregulatory activity indicating the limited capacities of physiological thermoregulation (0–50°C) relative to behavioral control. Environments with extreme temperatures (left) and human responses (right).

Adapted from Hardy 19


Figure 2.

Generalized scheme of an automatic regulating system.

From Stolwijk & Hardy 48


Figure 3.

Representation of passive model of six segments indicating method of identification: 1, head; 2, trunk; 3, arms; 4, hands; 5, legs; 6, feet.



Figure 4.

Schematic representation of heat exchange for the four compartments of Segment I. (For symbols see Table 6, Appendix A.)

From Stolwijk 45


Figure 5.

5a. Effect of local skin temperature, Tsj, on the sweat rate from a small area of the thigh as the mean skin temperature, , was increased; internal temperature was constant. 5b. Effect of rate of fall of mean skin temperature, (dTsk)/(dt), on the linear response of sweating, shown in Figure 5a, as the skin is cooled.

From Nadel et al. 32


Figure 6.

Increase in metabolic rate as affected by mean skin and internal body temperatures. , mean skin temperature; Tin, internal temperature.

From Nadel et al. 33


Figure 7.

Rates of evaporative heat loss from the skin in quasisteady states, as a function of internal, Tin, and mean skin, , temperatures. Data from resting men, ▪; data from exercising men, ▪.



Figure 8.

Plot of the output from the central controller for sweating as affected by the mean skin temperature, , and internal temperature, Tin, without the local temperature effect on the sweat rate.



Figure 9.

Peripheral conductance (core to skin) as a function of internal (Tint) and mean skin temperature () estimated from experiments in the quasi‐steady state for conditions including heat exposure at rest and exercise at temperatures 10–30°C. Values of “effective blood flow” (right) are estimated from values of tissue conductance.



Figure 10.

Estimates of peripheral conductance and effective skin blood flow with effects of local temperature removed. Tin, internal temperatures; , skin temperature.



Figure 11.

Comparison of physiological data with theoretical values derived from model. Subject clad in shorts sat for 30 min in a neutral environment, 30°C, and transferred quickly to a room at 48°C for 2 h. A final hour was spent at 30°C. Solid lines, experimental data; dashed lines, computed values.

From Stolwijk & Hardy 47


Figure 12.

Experiment in which subject clad in shorts sat for 1 h in a 43°C environment followed by 2 h at 18°C and 1 h at 43°C. Solid line, experimental data; dashed line, model calculations; Tr, rectal temperature; Te, tympanic membrane temperature; Ev, evaporative heat loss; W · m−2; M, metabolic rate, W · m−2.

From Hardy & Stolwijk 21


Figure 13.

Experimental results for minimally dressed subject during three 30‐min periods of work on bicycle ergometer at 30°C (RH = 30%, air velocity 0.1 m · s−1). Solid lines, experimental data; dashed lines, calculated results; Tr, rectal temperature; , mean skin temperature.

From Gagge et al. 17


Figure 14.

Experimental results and calculated values for exercise experiment at 20°C. , mean skin temperatures; Tr, rectal temperature.

From Gagge et al. 17


Figure 15.

Flow diagram for various steps to implement model of thermoregulation in human beings.

From Stolwijk 45


Figure 16.

FORTRAN source program for model of thermoregulation.

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Article Title: Control of Body Temperature
 

How to Cite

Jan A. J. Stolwijk, James D. Hardy. Control of Body Temperature. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 26: Handbook of Physiology, Reactions to Environmental Agents: 45-68. First published in print 1977. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp090104