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Energetics of Muscle Contraction

Martin J. Kushmerick

10.1002/cphy.cp100107

Source: Supplement 27: Handbook of Physiology, Skeletal Muscle

Originally published: 1983

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Historical Perspectives
1.1 Nature of the Muscle Machine
1.2 Chemical Discoveries
1.3 Energetics as an Analytical Tool
1.4 Direct Measurements of Chemical Change
1.5 Summary
2 Chemical Reactions and Metabolic Principles
2.1 Adenosine Triphosphatases
2.2 Creatine Phosphokinase
2.3 Adenylate Kinase
2.4 Adenylate Deaminase and the Purine Nucleotide Cycle
2.5 Glycogenolysis and Glycolysis
2.6 Oxidative Metabolism
3 Basic Energetic Model
4 Thermodynamics
5 Energy Balance
5.1 Myothermic Method
5.2 Biochemical Method
6 Results of Energy Balance Experiments
6.1 Energy Balance Studies in Rana temporaria
6.2 Energy Balance Studies in Rana pipiens
6.3 Amphibian Muscles
6.4 Mammalian Muscles
7 Energetics of Muscles that Shorten or are Stretched
8 New Directions
8.1 Phosphorus Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
8.2 Use of Single Fibers
Figure 1.

Time course of heat production during a maintained isometric tetanus of frog muscle at various temperatures. [Redrawn from Hartree and Hill 87.]
Figure 2.

Variations of external mechanical work and heat in excess of isometric heat as a function of load in isotonic afterloaded contractions; 1 J = 107 ergs. [From Fenn 62.]
Figure 3.

Measurements of total energy output or chemical change as a function of load in working contractions studied by different investigators. All values are relative to a reference isometric contraction (+). ▴, ▪, □, Experiments made above 10°C; •, ×, Δ, experiments made near 0°C. Interrupted line depicts expected energy output as the sum of activation heat, shortening heat, and external work done.

From Woledge 235, © 1971, with permission from Pergamon Press, Ltd
Figure 4.

Energy output in single isotonic twitches of frog sartorius muscles as a function of load. Filled circle, heat output in an isometric twitch; curve w, represents external work done; curve h + w, total energy released; line h vs. load, isometric twitch heat measured at increasingly long lengths and therefore at decreasing isometric forces; line h‐w is the difference between uppermost and lowermost curve.

Adapted from Homsher et al. 111
Figure 5.

Model of behavior of energy‐rich phosphate compounds' as a function of extent of PCr splitting, ξ ∼ P, for coupled equilibria of creatine Phosphokinase and adenylate kinase reactions. Conditions for resting muscle are plotted at the origin.

Adapted from Vincent and Blair 222
Figure 6.

A: activation of glycogen Phosphorylase during contractile activity of aerobic frog muscle. B: fractional Phosphorylase activity as a function of the extent of high‐energy phosphate splitting (ξ ∼ P) during a single isometric tetanus. [A from Mommaerts et al. 179; B data from M. J. Kushmerick, unpublished observations.]
Figure 7.

Scheme of steps in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation omitting mechanisms of generating proton gradients. Each site is a mechanism for formation of one ATP from ADP and Pi coupled to the proton motive force generated by the stepwise oxidation of one reducing equivalent by one‐half O2. Some substrates enter the chain distal to site 1 and bypass first ATP‐generating site.
Figure 8.

Fluorescent signals obtained from intact anuran muscles. A: record of a decrease in fluorescence after a twitch at 12°C, which indicates a transient decrease (or oxidation) of NADH. B: records of fluorescence changes after a 0.5‐s tetanus at 20°C showing a transient increase in fluorescence or increase in NADH, which in A is partly obscured by a movement artifact. In B this artifact has been subtracted, and the fast transient increase in NADH is blocked by iodoacetate, which indicates that a portion of the response can be attributed to glycolytic redox transients in the cytosol. [A from Jöbsis and Duffield 126; B from Godfraind‐de Becker 79.]
Figure 9.

Oxygen consumption as a function of time in a mitochondrial suspension (A) and in intact frog sartorius muscle at 0°C (B). After addition of ADP to a mitochondrial suspension, respiration rate becomes maximal, characteristic of state 3, and returns to state 4 when added ADP is completely phosphorylated. The first addition of ADP is about twice the amount of the second. Two recovery O2 consumption records are presented in B, one from each member of a pair of sartorius muscles from 1 animal. There is a diffusional delay between tetanus and first sign of increased O2 consumption. Rate of O2 consumption after a single contraction is always much less (here about Va) than the maximal respiratory capability of the muscle 140. [B from Paul and Kushmerick 191.]
Figure 10.

Chemical changes during contraction and subsequent recovery during which initial steady‐state conditions are restored.
Figure 11.

Relationship between total enthalpy production (h + w) and explained enthalpy during isometric tetanuses of various durations. A and B: explained enthalpy (○) and h + w (•). C: a scheme in which it is imagined that the unknown reaction goes to completion and is added linearly to the stable rate of enthalpy production to give observed total enthalpy production. [A from Homsher et al. 109; B from Curtin and Woledge 38.]
Figure 12.

Utilization of chemical energy during contraction as a function of tension‐time integral for isometric tetanuses up to 20 s in duration. A: initial chemical changes (initial ξ ∼ P); B: recovery O2 consumption (recovery ξ ∼ P). Sartorii from Rana temporaria were studied at O°C. In A and B ξ ∼ P and ξo2 are plotted separately. C: ξ ∼ P is replotted (•); ξo2 × 6.3 is plotted on the same graph (▪). Break in upper curve in C occurs between 5 and 10 s of stimulation. Tension‐time integral for each second of stimulation is approximately 2.1 kg · cm‐1 · s−1 · g−1. (M. J. Kushmerick, unpublished observations.)
Figure 13.

Energy imbalance in Rana temporaria (left) and Rana pipiens (right). Open symbols and full line, h + w; closed symbols and dashed line, explained enthalpy. Dotted curve on right is the unexplained enthalpy. [From Homsher and Kean 108.

Reproduced, with permission, from Annu. Rev, Physiol., vol. 40, © 1978 by Annual Reviews, Inc
Figure 14.

Relationships between initial changes in high‐energy phosphate compounds [Δ ∼ P/g, (ξ ∼ P)] and stimulus duration (A) and tension‐time integral (B). Mean values ± SE are shown. Relationships between recovery O2 consumption [ΔO2/g, (ξo2)] and tetanus duration (C) and tension‐time integral (D) are shown for data obtained in 1 muscle. [From Kushmerick and Paul 141.]
Figure 15.

Initial and recovery chemical changes as a function of duration of isometric tetanus. •, Direct measurements of ξ ∼ P; ○, measurements of ξo2 multiplied by a factor of 4 to scale with ξ ∼ P. Regression equations given in insert. Aerobic sartorii of Rana pipiens at 0°C. [Data from Kushmerick and Paul 141.]
Figure 16.

Relationship between initial changes in high‐energy phosphates, ξ ∼ P (open symbols) and high‐energy phosphate resynthesis by recovery metabolism (closed symbols) as a function of tension‐time integral. Contraction durations were 0.5, 1, 3, and 5 s. Circles, aerobic muscles; squares, anaerobic muscles; filled circles, 6.3 × ξo2; filled squares, 1.5 × ξ lactate. Aerobic and anaerobic sartorii of Rana pipiens at 20°C. [Data replotted from DeFuria and Kushmerick 46.]
Figure 17.

Mechanical power, chemical power, and efficiency of muscular work as a function of velocity of shortening. Muscles were constrained to shorten at constant velocities. A: rate of mechanical work‐mechanical power. B: rate of utilization of high‐energy phosphates or chemical power input, measured directly as ATP splitting in fluorodinitrobenzene‐treated muscles (creatine Phosphokinase blocked). C: efficiency of work performance derived from the data in A and B (solid line). Interrupted line is efficiency after subtracting an estimated amount of ATP splitting thought to represent nonactomyosin energy costs. [From Kushmerick and Davies 138.]
Figure 18.

Calculations based on the cross‐bridge model of Eisenberg, Hill, and Chen 55. /o, rate of nigh‐energy phosphate splitting normalized to the isometric rate, η, Efficiency of chemomechani‐cal coupling; , number of ATP molecules hydrolyzed per unit distance shortened. All parameters graphed as a function of steady‐state velocity of shortening. [From Eisenberg et al. 55.]
Figure 19.

31P NMR spectra of cat biceps muscle 137. Muscle was perfused in vitro through branches of capillary artery with an oxygenated synthetic commercial fluorocarbon suspension (Fluosol‐43) containing papaverine at 30 μg/ml; flow was 0.2 ml/min for this 3‐g muscle. Upper curve is spectrum obtained with a single NMR scan; lower curve is spectrum obtained by averaging 40 scans, each taken at 15‐s intervals. Identification of the peaks from left to right: Pi; PCr; γ‐, α‐, and β‐phosphorus of ATP. Shoulder on α‐ATP is probably NAD/NADH.


Figure 1.

Time course of heat production during a maintained isometric tetanus of frog muscle at various temperatures. [Redrawn from Hartree and Hill 87.]



Figure 2.

Variations of external mechanical work and heat in excess of isometric heat as a function of load in isotonic afterloaded contractions; 1 J = 107 ergs. [From Fenn 62.]



Figure 3.

Measurements of total energy output or chemical change as a function of load in working contractions studied by different investigators. All values are relative to a reference isometric contraction (+). ▴, ▪, □, Experiments made above 10°C; •, ×, Δ, experiments made near 0°C. Interrupted line depicts expected energy output as the sum of activation heat, shortening heat, and external work done.

From Woledge 235, © 1971, with permission from Pergamon Press, Ltd


Figure 4.

Energy output in single isotonic twitches of frog sartorius muscles as a function of load. Filled circle, heat output in an isometric twitch; curve w, represents external work done; curve h + w, total energy released; line h vs. load, isometric twitch heat measured at increasingly long lengths and therefore at decreasing isometric forces; line h‐w is the difference between uppermost and lowermost curve.

Adapted from Homsher et al. 111


Figure 5.

Model of behavior of energy‐rich phosphate compounds' as a function of extent of PCr splitting, ξ ∼ P, for coupled equilibria of creatine Phosphokinase and adenylate kinase reactions. Conditions for resting muscle are plotted at the origin.

Adapted from Vincent and Blair 222


Figure 6.

A: activation of glycogen Phosphorylase during contractile activity of aerobic frog muscle. B: fractional Phosphorylase activity as a function of the extent of high‐energy phosphate splitting (ξ ∼ P) during a single isometric tetanus. [A from Mommaerts et al. 179; B data from M. J. Kushmerick, unpublished observations.]



Figure 7.

Scheme of steps in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation omitting mechanisms of generating proton gradients. Each site is a mechanism for formation of one ATP from ADP and Pi coupled to the proton motive force generated by the stepwise oxidation of one reducing equivalent by one‐half O2. Some substrates enter the chain distal to site 1 and bypass first ATP‐generating site.



Figure 8.

Fluorescent signals obtained from intact anuran muscles. A: record of a decrease in fluorescence after a twitch at 12°C, which indicates a transient decrease (or oxidation) of NADH. B: records of fluorescence changes after a 0.5‐s tetanus at 20°C showing a transient increase in fluorescence or increase in NADH, which in A is partly obscured by a movement artifact. In B this artifact has been subtracted, and the fast transient increase in NADH is blocked by iodoacetate, which indicates that a portion of the response can be attributed to glycolytic redox transients in the cytosol. [A from Jöbsis and Duffield 126; B from Godfraind‐de Becker 79.]



Figure 9.

Oxygen consumption as a function of time in a mitochondrial suspension (A) and in intact frog sartorius muscle at 0°C (B). After addition of ADP to a mitochondrial suspension, respiration rate becomes maximal, characteristic of state 3, and returns to state 4 when added ADP is completely phosphorylated. The first addition of ADP is about twice the amount of the second. Two recovery O2 consumption records are presented in B, one from each member of a pair of sartorius muscles from 1 animal. There is a diffusional delay between tetanus and first sign of increased O2 consumption. Rate of O2 consumption after a single contraction is always much less (here about Va) than the maximal respiratory capability of the muscle 140. [B from Paul and Kushmerick 191.]



Figure 10.

Chemical changes during contraction and subsequent recovery during which initial steady‐state conditions are restored.



Figure 11.

Relationship between total enthalpy production (h + w) and explained enthalpy during isometric tetanuses of various durations. A and B: explained enthalpy (○) and h + w (•). C: a scheme in which it is imagined that the unknown reaction goes to completion and is added linearly to the stable rate of enthalpy production to give observed total enthalpy production. [A from Homsher et al. 109; B from Curtin and Woledge 38.]



Figure 12.

Utilization of chemical energy during contraction as a function of tension‐time integral for isometric tetanuses up to 20 s in duration. A: initial chemical changes (initial ξ ∼ P); B: recovery O2 consumption (recovery ξ ∼ P). Sartorii from Rana temporaria were studied at O°C. In A and B ξ ∼ P and ξo2 are plotted separately. C: ξ ∼ P is replotted (•); ξo2 × 6.3 is plotted on the same graph (▪). Break in upper curve in C occurs between 5 and 10 s of stimulation. Tension‐time integral for each second of stimulation is approximately 2.1 kg · cm‐1 · s−1 · g−1. (M. J. Kushmerick, unpublished observations.)



Figure 13.

Energy imbalance in Rana temporaria (left) and Rana pipiens (right). Open symbols and full line, h + w; closed symbols and dashed line, explained enthalpy. Dotted curve on right is the unexplained enthalpy. [From Homsher and Kean 108.

Reproduced, with permission, from Annu. Rev, Physiol., vol. 40, © 1978 by Annual Reviews, Inc


Figure 14.

Relationships between initial changes in high‐energy phosphate compounds [Δ ∼ P/g, (ξ ∼ P)] and stimulus duration (A) and tension‐time integral (B). Mean values ± SE are shown. Relationships between recovery O2 consumption [ΔO2/g, (ξo2)] and tetanus duration (C) and tension‐time integral (D) are shown for data obtained in 1 muscle. [From Kushmerick and Paul 141.]



Figure 15.

Initial and recovery chemical changes as a function of duration of isometric tetanus. •, Direct measurements of ξ ∼ P; ○, measurements of ξo2 multiplied by a factor of 4 to scale with ξ ∼ P. Regression equations given in insert. Aerobic sartorii of Rana pipiens at 0°C. [Data from Kushmerick and Paul 141.]



Figure 16.

Relationship between initial changes in high‐energy phosphates, ξ ∼ P (open symbols) and high‐energy phosphate resynthesis by recovery metabolism (closed symbols) as a function of tension‐time integral. Contraction durations were 0.5, 1, 3, and 5 s. Circles, aerobic muscles; squares, anaerobic muscles; filled circles, 6.3 × ξo2; filled squares, 1.5 × ξ lactate. Aerobic and anaerobic sartorii of Rana pipiens at 20°C. [Data replotted from DeFuria and Kushmerick 46.]



Figure 17.

Mechanical power, chemical power, and efficiency of muscular work as a function of velocity of shortening. Muscles were constrained to shorten at constant velocities. A: rate of mechanical work‐mechanical power. B: rate of utilization of high‐energy phosphates or chemical power input, measured directly as ATP splitting in fluorodinitrobenzene‐treated muscles (creatine Phosphokinase blocked). C: efficiency of work performance derived from the data in A and B (solid line). Interrupted line is efficiency after subtracting an estimated amount of ATP splitting thought to represent nonactomyosin energy costs. [From Kushmerick and Davies 138.]



Figure 18.

Calculations based on the cross‐bridge model of Eisenberg, Hill, and Chen 55. /o, rate of nigh‐energy phosphate splitting normalized to the isometric rate, η, Efficiency of chemomechani‐cal coupling; , number of ATP molecules hydrolyzed per unit distance shortened. All parameters graphed as a function of steady‐state velocity of shortening. [From Eisenberg et al. 55.]



Figure 19.

31P NMR spectra of cat biceps muscle 137. Muscle was perfused in vitro through branches of capillary artery with an oxygenated synthetic commercial fluorocarbon suspension (Fluosol‐43) containing papaverine at 30 μg/ml; flow was 0.2 ml/min for this 3‐g muscle. Upper curve is spectrum obtained with a single NMR scan; lower curve is spectrum obtained by averaging 40 scans, each taken at 15‐s intervals. Identification of the peaks from left to right: Pi; PCr; γ‐, α‐, and β‐phosphorus of ATP. Shoulder on α‐ATP is probably NAD/NADH.

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Article Title: Energetics of Muscle Contraction
 

How to Cite

Martin J. Kushmerick. Energetics of Muscle Contraction. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 27: Handbook of Physiology, Skeletal Muscle: 189-236. First published in print 1983. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp100107