Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library

Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Mineralocorticoid Disorders

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The renin‐angiotensin‐aldosterone system (RAAS) is a major regulator of blood pressure control, fluid, and electrolyte balance in humans. Chronic activation of mineralocorticoid production leads to dysregulation of the cardiovascular system and to hypertension.

The key mineralocorticoid is aldosterone. Hyperaldosteronism causes sodium and fluid retention in the kidney. Combined with the actions of angiotensin II, chronic elevation in aldosterone leads to detrimental effects in the vasculature, heart, and brain. The adverse effects of excess aldosterone are heavily dependent on increased dietary salt intake as has been demonstrated in animal models and in humans.

Hypertension develops due to complex genetic influences combined with environmental factors. In the last two decades, primary aldosteronism has been found to occur in 5% to 13% of subjects with hypertension. In addition, patients with hyperaldosteronism have more end organ manifestations such as left ventricular hypertrophy and have significant cardiovascular complications including higher rates of heart failure and atrial fibrillation compared to similarly matched patients with essential hypertension.

The pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment of primary aldosteronism will be extensively reviewed. There are many pitfalls in the diagnosis and confirmation of the disorder that will be discussed. Other rare forms of hyper‐ and hypo‐aldosteronism and unusual disorders of hypertension will also be reviewed in this article. © 2014 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 4:1083‐1119, 2014.

Comprehensive Physiology offers downloadable PowerPoint presentations of figures for non-profit, educational use, provided the content is not modified and full credit is given to the author and publication.

Download a PowerPoint presentation of all images


Figure 1. Figure 1. Adrenocortical steroidogenic pathway. Adrenocortical steroidogenic pathways for the production of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids. Reprinted with permission (141); From Fig. 1. p 152.
Figure 2. Figure 2. CT imaging of the abdomen in a 39‐year‐old woman revealed a 2.3‐cm left adrenal nodule with HU of ‐13 (arrow). The contralateral adrenal gland appeared normal.
Figure 3. Figure 3. Left adrenal nodule in 55 year old man with primary aldosteronism (arrow). The right adrenal gland was normal.
Figure 4. Figure 4. CT of the abdomen in a 42‐year‐old man with primary aldosteronism. Superior cut of the abdomen. Note the 2‐cm nodule in the body of the left adrenal gland (arrow). The right adrenal gland appeared normal in this section.
Figure 5. Figure 5. CT of the abdomen in a 42‐year‐old man with primary aldosteronism. Lower (more caudal) cut of the abdomen. Note the ∼1 cm nodule in the distal portion of the medial limb of the right adrenal gland (arrow).


Figure 1. Adrenocortical steroidogenic pathway. Adrenocortical steroidogenic pathways for the production of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids. Reprinted with permission (141); From Fig. 1. p 152.


Figure 2. CT imaging of the abdomen in a 39‐year‐old woman revealed a 2.3‐cm left adrenal nodule with HU of ‐13 (arrow). The contralateral adrenal gland appeared normal.


Figure 3. Left adrenal nodule in 55 year old man with primary aldosteronism (arrow). The right adrenal gland was normal.


Figure 4. CT of the abdomen in a 42‐year‐old man with primary aldosteronism. Superior cut of the abdomen. Note the 2‐cm nodule in the body of the left adrenal gland (arrow). The right adrenal gland appeared normal in this section.


Figure 5. CT of the abdomen in a 42‐year‐old man with primary aldosteronism. Lower (more caudal) cut of the abdomen. Note the ∼1 cm nodule in the distal portion of the medial limb of the right adrenal gland (arrow).
References
 1. Achard JM , Hadchouel J , Faure S , Jeunemaitre X . Inherited sodium avid states. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 13: 118‐123, 2006.
 2. Adachi J , Hirai Y , Terui K , Nakano T , Fukuda Y , Suda T , Sasano H . A report of 7 cases of adrenal tumors secreting both cortisol and aldosterone. Int Med 42: 714‐718, 2003.
 3. Adachi M , Tachibana K , Asakura Y , Abe S , Nakae J , Tajima T , Fujieda K . Compound heterozygous mutations in the gamma subunit gene of ENaC (1627delG and 1570‐1G→A) in one sporadic Japanese patient with a systemic form of pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86: 9‐12, 2001.
 4. Ahmed AH , Gordon RD , Taylor P , Ward G , Pimenta E , Stowasser M . Effect of atenolol on aldosterone/renin ratio calculated by both plasma renin activity and direct renin concentration in healthy male volunteers. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95: 3201‐3206, 2010.
 5. Ahmed AH , Gordon RD , Taylor PJ , Ward G , Pimenta E , Stowasser M . Effect of contraceptives on aldosterone‐renin ratio may vary according to the components of contraceptive, renin assay method, and possibly route of administration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96: 1797‐1804, 2011.
 6. Al‐Dujaili EA , Edwards CR . The development and application of a direct radioimmunoassay for plasma aldosterone using 125I‐labeled ligand‐comparison of three methods. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 46: 105‐113, 1978.
 7. Arai K , Tsigos C , Suzuki Y , Irony I , Karl M , Listwak S , Chrousos GP . Physiological and molecular aspects of mineralocorticoid receptor action in pseudohypoaldosteronism: A responsiveness test and therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 79: 1019‐1023, 1994.
 8. Armanini D , Fiore C , Pellati D . Spontaneous resolution of idiopathic aldosteronism after long‐term treatment with potassium canrenoate. Hypertension 50: e69‐e70, 2007.
 9. Arnaldi G , Angeli A , Atkinson AB . Diagnosis and complications of Cushing's syndrome: A consensus statement. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88: 5593‐5602, 2003.
 10. Arriza JL , Weinberger C , Cerelli G , Glaser TM , Handelin BL , Housman DE , Evans RM . Cloning of the human mineralocorticoid receptor complementary DNA: Structural and functional kinship with the glucocorticoid receptor. Science 237: 268‐275, 1987.
 11. Arteaga E , Biglieri EG , Kater CE , Lopez JM , Schambelan M . Aldosterone‐producing adrenocortical carcinoma. Preoperative recognition and course in three cases. Ann Intern Med 101: 316‐321, 1984.
 12. Assalia A , Gagner M . Laparoscopic adrenalectomy. Brit J Surgery 91: 1259‐1274, 2004.
 13. Auchus RJ . Primary aldosteronism and a Texas two‐step. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 12: 37‐42, 2011.
 14. Auchus RJ , Michaelis C , Wians FH Jr , Dolmatch BL , Josephs SC , Trimmer CK , Anderson ME , Nwariaku FE . Rapid cortisol assays improve the success rate of adrenal vein sampling for primary aldosteronism. Ann Surgery 249: 318‐321, 2009.
 15. August JT , Nelson DH , Thorn GW . Response of normal subjects to large amounts of aldosterone. J Clin Invest 37: 1549‐1555, 1958.
 16. Azizan EAB , Murthy M , Stowasser M , Gordon RD , Kowalski B , Xu S , Brown MJ , O'Shaughnessy KM . Somatic mutations affecting the selectivity filter of KCNJ5 are frequent in 2 large unselected collections of adrenal aldosteronomas. Hypertension 59: 587‐591, 2012.
 17. Baer L , Sommers SC , Krakoff LR , Newton MA , Laragh JH . Pseudo‐primary aldosteronism. An entity distinct from true primary aldosteronism. Circ Res 27 (Suppl. I): 1205‐1220, 1970.
 18. Banks WA , Kastin AJ , Biglieri EG , Ruiz AE . Primary adrenal hyperplasia: A new subset of primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 58: 783‐785, 1984.
 19. Bantle JP , Nath KA , Sutherland DE , Najarian JS , Ferris TF . Effects of cyclosporine on the renin‐angiotensin‐aldosterone system and potassium excretion in renal transplant recipients. Arch Int Med 145: 505‐508, 1985.
 20. Bassett MH , White PC , Rainey WE . The regulation of aldosterone synthase expression. Mol Cell Endocrinol 217: 67‐74, 2004.
 21. Bayliss DA , Barrett PQ . Emerging roles for two‐pore‐domain potassium channels and their potential therapeutic impact. Trends Pharmacol Sci 29: 566‐575, 2008.
 22. Betz MJ , Degenhart C , Fischer E , Pallauf A , Brand V , Linsenmaier U , Beuschlein F , Bidlingmaier M , Reincke M . Adrenal vein sampling using rapid cortisol assays in primary aldosteronism is useful in centers with low success rates. Eur J Endocrinol 165: 301‐306, 2011.
 23. Biglieri EG . 17‐hydroxylation deficiency in man. J Clin Invest 45: 1946‐1954, 1966.
 24. Biglieri EG , Schambelan M . The significance of elevated levels of plasma 18‐hydroxycorticosterone in patients with primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 49: 87‐91, 1979.
 25. Bindels RJ . A molecular switch controlling renal sodium and potassium excretion. Nature Genet 35: 302‐303, 2003.
 26. Blumenfeld JD , Sealey JE , Schlussel Y , Vaughan ED Jr , Sos, TA , Atlas SA , Muller FB , Acevedo R , Ulick S , Laragh H . Diagnosis and treatment of hyperaldosteronism. Ann Intern Med 121: 877‐885, 1994.
 27. Bockenhauer D , van't Hoff W , Dattani M , Lehnhardt A , Subtirelu M , Hildebrandt F , Bichet DG . Secondary nephrogenic diabetes insipidus as a complication of inherited renal disease. Nephron Physiol 116: 23‐29, 2010.
 28. Bonny O , Rossier BC . Disturbances of Na/K balance: Pseudohypoaldosteronism revisited. J Am Soc Nephrol 12: 2399‐2414, 2002.
 29. Born‐Frontsberg E , Reincke M , Rump LC , Hahner S , Diederich S , Lorenz R , Allolio B , Seufert J , Schirpenbach C , Beuschlein F , Bidlingmaier M , Endres S , Quinkler M . Cardiovascular and cerebrovascular comorbidities of hypokalemic and normokalemic primary aldosteronism: Results of the German Conn's Registry. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94: 1125‐1130, 2009.
 30. Botero‐Velez M , Curtis JJ , Warnock DG . Brief report: Liddle's syndrome revisited‐a disorder of sodium reabsorption in the distal tubule. N Engl J Med 330: 178‐181, 1994.
 31. Boulkroun S , Beuschlein F , Rossi GP , Golib‐Dzib J‐F , Fischer E , Amar L , Mulatero P , Samson‐Couterie B , Hahner S , Quinkler M , Fallo F , Letizia C , Allolio B , Ceolotto G , Cicala MV , Lang K , Lefebvre H , Lenzini L , Maniero C , Monticone S , Perrocheau M , Pilon C , Plouin PF , Rayes N , Seccia TM , Veglio F , Williams TA , Zinnamosca L , Mantero F , Benecke A , Jeunemaitre X , Reincke M , Zennaro MC . Prevalence, clinical and molecular correlates of KCNJ5 mutations in primary aldosteronism. Hypertension 59: 592‐598, 2012.
 32. Boyden LM , Choi M , Choate KA , Nelson‐Williams CJ , Farhi A , Toka HR , Tikhonova IR , Bjornson R , Mane SM , Colussi G , Lebel M , Gordon RD , Semmekrot BA , Poujol A , Valimaki MJ , De Ferrari ME , Sanjad SA , Gutkin M , Karet FE , Tucci JR , Stockigt JR , Keppler‐Noreuil KM , Porter CC , Anand SK , Whiteford ML , Davis ID , Dewar SB , Bettinelli A , Fadrowski JJ , Belsha CW , Hunley TE , Nelson RD , Trachtman H , Cole TRP , Pinsk M , Bockenhauer D , Shenoy M , Vaidyanathan P , Foreman JW , Rasoulpour M , Thameem F , Al‐Shahrouri HZ , Radhakrishnan J , Gharavi AG , Goilav B , Lifton RP . Mutations in kelch‐like 3 and cullin 3 cause hypertension and electrolyte abnormalities. Nature 482: 98‐102, 2012.
 33. Bravo EL , Tarazi RC , Dustan HP , Fouad FM , Textor SC , Gifford RW , Vidt DG . The changing clinical spectrum of primary aldosteronism. Am J Med 74: 641‐651, 1983.
 34. Brilla CG , Pick R , Tan LP , Janicki JS , Weber KT . Remodeling of the rat right and left ventricle in experimental hypertension. Circ Res 67: 1355‐1364, 1990.
 35. Brilla CG , Weber KT . Reactive and reparative myocardial fibrosis in arterial hypertension in the rat. Cardiovasc Res 26: 671‐677, 1992.
 36. Calhoun DA , Jones D , Textor S , Goff DC , Murphy TP , Toto RD , White A , Cushman WC , White W , Sica D , Ferdinand K , Giles TD , Falkner B , Carey RM . Resistant hypertension: Diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment. A scientific statement from the American Heart Association Professional Education Committee of the Council for High Blood Pressure Research. Hypertension 51: 1403‐1419, 2008.
 37. Calhoun DA , Nishizaka MK , Zaman MA , Thakkar RB , Weissman P . High prevalence of primary aldosteronism among black and white subjects with resistant hypertension. Hypertension 40: 892‐896, 2002.
 38. Canessa C , Schild L , Buell G , Thorens B , Gautschi I , Horisberger J‐D , Rossier B . Amiloride‐sensitive epithelial Na+ channel is made of three homologous subunits. Nature 367: 463‐467, 1994.
 39. Carey RM . Aldosterone and cardiovascular disease. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 17: 194‐198, 2010.
 40. Catena C , Colussi GL , Lapenna R , Nadalini E , Chiuch A , Gianfagna P , Sechi LA . Long‐term cardiac effects of adrenalectomy or mineralocorticoid antagonists in patients with primary aldosteronism. Hypertension 50: 911‐918, 2007.
 41. Celen O , O'Brien MJ , Melby JC , Beazley RM . Factors influencing outcome of surgery for primary aldosteronism. Arch Surg 131: 646‐650, 1996.
 42. Ceral J , Solar M , Krajina A , Ballon M , Suba P , Cap J . Adrenal venous sampling in primary aldosteronism: A low dilution of adrenal venous blood is crucial for a correct interpretation of the results. Eur J Endocrinol 162: 101‐107, 2010.
 43. Chai W , Garrelds IM , de Vries R , Batenburg WW , van Kats JP , Danser AHJ . Nongenomic effects of aldosterone in the human heart: Interaction with angiotensin II. Hypertension 46: 701‐706, 2005.
 44. Chang SS , Grunder S , Hanukoglu A , Rosler A , Mather PM , Hanukoglu I , Schild L , Lu Y , Shimkets RA , Williams CN , Rossier BC , Lifton RP . Mutations in subunits of the epithelial sodium channel cause salt wasting with hyperkalemic acidosis, pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1. Nature Genet 12: 248‐253, 1996.
 45. Chapman N , Dobson J , Wilson S , Dahlof B , Sever PS , Wedel H , Poulter NR , on behalf of the Anglo‐Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial Investigators. Effect of spironolactone on blood pressure in subjects with resistant hypertension. Hypertension 49: 839‐845, 2007.
 46. Cheek D , Perry J . A salt wasting syndrome in infancy. Arch Dis Child 33: 252‐256, 1958.
 47. Chen SY , Bhargava A , Mastroberadino I , Meijer OC , Wang J , Buse P , Firestone GI , Verrey F , Pearce D . Epithelial sodium channel regulated by aldosterone‐induced protein sgk. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96: 2514‐2519, 1999.
 48. Chen XL , Bayliss DA , Fern RJ , Barrett PQ . A role for T‐type Ca2+ channels in the synergistic control of aldosterone production by ANG II and K. Am J Physiol 276: F675‐F683, 1999.
 49. Chiodini I , Morelli V , Salcuni AS , Eller‐Vainicher C , Torlontano M , Coletti F , Iorio L , Cuttitta A , Ambrosio A , Vincentini L , Pellegrini F , Copetti M , Beck‐Peccoz P , Arosio M , Ambrosi B , Trischitta V , Scillitani A . Beneficial metabolic effects of prompt surgical treatment in patients with an adrenal incidentaloma causing biochemical hypercortisolism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95: 2736‐2745, 2010.
 50. Chobanian AV , Bakris GL , Black HR , Cushman WC , Green LA , Izzo JL , Kones DW , Materson BJ , Oparil S , Wright JT Jr , Roccella EJ , and the National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee. Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Hypertension 42: 1206‐1252, 2003.
 51. Chobanian AV , Bakris GL , Black HR , Cushman WC , Green LA , Izzo JL Jr , Jones DW , Materson BJ , Opraril S , Wright JT Jr , Rocella EJ . Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute: National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee. Hypertension 42: 69‐75, 2007.
 52. Choi M , Scholl UI , Yue P , Bjorklund P , Zhao B , Nelson‐Williams C , Ji W , Cho Y , Patel A , Men CJ , Lolis E , Wisgerhof MV , Geller DS , Mane S , Hellman P , Westin G , Akerstrom G , Wang W , Carling T , Lifton RP . K+ channel mutations in adrenal aldosterone‐producing adenomas and hereditary hypertension. Science 331: 768‐772, 2011.
 53. Clark BA , Brown RS , Epstein FH . Effect of atrial natriuretic peptide on potassium‐stimulated aldosterone secretion: Potential relevance to hypoaldosteronism in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 75: 399‐402, 1992.
 54. Cogan MG . Angiotensin II: A powerful controller of sodium transport in the early proximal tubule. Hypertension 15: 451‐458, 1990.
 55. Conn JW . Presidential address: Part I. Painting background. Part II Primary aldosteronism, a new clinical syndrome. J Lab Clin Med 45: 3‐17, 1955.
 56. Conn JW . Progress report. Primary aldosteronism. J Lab Clin Med 45: 661‐664, 1955.
 57. Conn, JW . Plasma renin activity in primary aldosteronism: Importance in differential diagnosis and in research of essential hypertension. JAMA 190: 222‐225, 1964.
 58. Conn JW , Cohen EL , Rovner DR , Nesbit RM . Normokalemic primary aldosteronism: A detectable cause of curable ‘essential’ hypertension. JAMA 193: 100‐106, 1965.
 59. Conn JW , Knopf RF , Nesbit RM . Clinical characteristics of primary aldosteronism from an analysis of 145 cases. Am J Surgery 107: 159‐172, 1964.
 60. Conn JW , Morita R , Cohen EL , Beierwaltes WH , McDonald WJ , Herwig KR . Primary aldosteronism. Photoscanning of tumors after administration of 131I‐19‐iodocholesterol. Arch Intern Med 129: 417‐425, 1972.
 61. Crane MG , Harris JJ , Herber R . Primary aldosteronism due to an adrenal carcinoma. Ann Intern Med 63: 494‐503, 1965.
 62. Curnow KM , Slutsker L , Vitek J , Cole T , Speiser PW , New MI , White PC , Pascoe L . Mutations in the Cyp11B1 gene causing congenital adrenal hyperplasia and hypertension cluster in exons 6, 7, and 8. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 90: 4552‐4556, 1993.
 63. Czirjak G , Fischer T , Spat A , Lesage F , Enyedi P . TASK (TWIK‐related acid‐sensitive K channel) is expressed in glomerulosa cells of rat adrenal cortex and inhibited by angiotensin II. Mol Endocrinol 14: 863‐874, 2000.
 64. Daunt N . Adrenal vein sampling: How to make it quick, easy, and successful. Radiographics 25: S143‐S158, 2005.
 65. Dave‐Sharma S , Wilson RC , Harbison MD , Newfield R , Razzaghy Azar M , Krozowski ZS , Funder JW , Shackleton CHL , Bradlow HL , Wei J‐Q , Hertecant J , Moran A , Neiberger RE , Balfe JW , Fattah A , Daneman D , Akkurt HI , De Santis C , New MI . Examination of genotype and phenotype relationships in 14 patients with apparent mineralocorticoid excess. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83: 2244‐2254, 1998.
 66. Davies LA , Hu C , Guagliardo NA , Sen N , Chen X , Talley EM , Carey RM , Bayliss DA , Barrett PQ . TASK channel deletion in mice causes primary aldosteronism. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105: 2203‐2208, 2008.
 67. Davis WW , Newsome HR Jr , Wright LD Jr , Hammond WG , Easton J , Bartter FC . Bilateral adrenal hyperplasia as a cause of primary aldosteronism with hypertension, hypokalemia and suppressed renin activity. Am J Med 42: 642‐647, 1967.
 68. DeFronzo RA . Hyperkalemia and hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism. Kidney Int 17: 118‐134, 1980.
 69. de Gasparo M , Joss U , Ramjoue HP , Whitebread SE , Haenni H , Schenkel L , Kraehenbuehl C , Biollaz M , Grob J , Schmidlin J , Wieland P , Wehrli HU . Three new epoxy‐spironolactone derivatives: Characterization in vivo and in vitro. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 240: 650‐656, 1987.
 70. de Klerk GJ , Nieuwenhuis MG , Beutler JJ . Lesson of the week. Hypokalemia and hypertension associated with use of liquorice flavoured chewing gum. BMJ 314: 731‐732, 1997.
 71. de la Sierra A , Segura J , Banegas JR , Gorostidi M , de la Cruz JJ , Armario P , Oliveros A , Ruilope LM . Clinical features of 8295 patients with resistant hypertension classified on the basis of ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. Hypertension 57: 898‐902, 2011.
 72. American Diabetes Association. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 31 (Suppl. 1): S55‐S60, 2008.
 73. Doi M , Takahashi Y , Komatsu R , Yamazaki F , Yamada H , Haraguchi S , Emoto N , Okuno Y , Tsujimoto G , Kanematsu A , Ogawa O , Todo T , Tsutsui K , van der Horst TJ , Okamura H . Salt‐sensitive hypertension in circadian clock‐deficient Cry‐null mice involves dysregulated adrenal Hsd3b6. Nature Med 16: 67‐74. 2011.
 74. Doppmann JL , Gill JR Jr . Hyperaldosteronism: Sampling the adrenal veins. Radiology 198: 309‐312, 1996.
 75. Douma S , Petidis K , Doumas M , Papaefthimiou P , Triantafyllou A , Kartali N , Papadopoulos N , Vogiatzis K , Zamboulis C . Prevalence of primary aldosteronism in resistant hypertension: A retrospective observational study. Lancet 371: 1921‐1926, 2008.
 76. Dunn PJ , Espiner EA . Outpatient screening tests for primary aldosteronism. Aust N Z J Med 6: 131‐135, 1976.
 77. Dzau VJ . Renal and circulatory mechanisms in congestive heart failure. Kidney Int 31: 1402‐1415, 1987.
 78. Egan BM , Zhao Y , Axon RN . US trends in prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension, 1988‐2008. JAMA 303: 2043‐2050, 2010.
 79. Ehrhart‐Bornstein M , Lamounier‐Zepter V , Schraven A , Langenbach J , Willenberg HS , Barthel A , Hauner H , McCann SM , Scherbaum WA , Bornstein SR . Human adipocytes secrete mineralocorticoid‐releasing factors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100: 14211‐14216, 2003.
 80. Eide IK , Torjesen PA , Drolsum A , Babovic A , Lilledahl NP . Low‐renin status in therapy‐resistant hypertension: A clue to efficient treatment. J Hypertension 22: 2217‐2226, 2004.
 81. Falko F , Bertello C , Tizzani D , Fassina A , Boulkroun S , Sonino N , Monticone S , Viola A , Veglio F , Mulatero P . Concurrent primary aldosteronism and subclinical cortisol hypersecretion: A prospective study. J Hypertension 29: 1773‐1777, 2011.
 82. Fallo F , Pilon C , Williams TA , Sonino N , Morra Di Cella S , Veglio F , De Iasio R , Montanari P , Mulatero P . Coexistence of different phenotypes in a family with glucocorticoid‐remediable aldosteronism. J Hum Hypertension 18: 47‐51, 2004.
 83. Fallo F , Veglio F , Bertello C , Sonino N , Della Mea P , Ermani M , Rabbia F , Federspil G , Mulatero P . Prevalence and characteristics of the metabolic syndrome in primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91: 454‐459, 2006.
 84. Fardella CE . Genetic study of patients with dexamethasone‐suppressible aldosteronism without the chimeric CYP11B1/CYP11B2 gene. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86: 4805‐4807, 2001.
 85. Fardella CE , Mosso L , Gomez‐Sanchez CE , Soto J , Montero J , Gomez L , Pinto M , Oestreicher E , Cortes P . Primary hyperaldosteronism in essential hypertensives: Prevalence, biochemical profile and molecular biology. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85: 1863‐1867, 2000.
 86. Farese RV Jr , Biglieri EG , Shackleton CHL , Irony I , Gomez‐Fontes R . Licorice‐induced hypermineralocorticoidism. N Engl J Med 325: 1223‐1227, 1991.
 87. Farfel Z , Iaina A , Rosenthal T , Waks U , Shibolet S , Gafni J . Familial hyperpotassemia and hypertension accompanied by normal plasma aldosterone levels: Possible cell membrane defect. Arch Intern Med 138: 1828‐1832, 1978.
 88. Farge D , Chatellier G , Pagny JY , Jeunemaitre X , Plouin P‐F , Corvol P . Isolated clinical syndrome of primary aldosteronism in four patients with adrenocortical carcinoma. Am J Med 83: 635‐640, 1987.
 89. Ferrari P , Shaw SG , Nicod J , Saner E , Nussberger J . Active renin versus plasma renin activity to define aldosterone‐to‐renin ratio for primary aldosteronism. J Hypertension 22: 377‐381, 2004.
 90. Ferriss JB , Brown JJ , Fraser R , Haywood E , Davies DL , Kay AW , Lever AF , Robertson JIS , Owen K , Peart WS . Results of adrenal surgery in patients with hypertension, aldosterone excess and low plasma renin concentration. BMJ 1: 135‐138, 1975.
 91. Findling JW , Raff H , Hansson JH , Lifton RP . Liddle's syndrome: Prospective genetic screening and suppressed aldosterone secretion in an extended kindred. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82: 1071‐1074, 1997.
 92. Fischer E , Adolf C , Pallauf A , Then C , Bidlingmaier M , Beuschlein F , Seissler J , Reincke M . Aldosterone excess impairs first phase insulin secretion in primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98: 2513‐1520, 2013.
 93. Fischer E , Beuschlein F , Bidlingmaier M , Reincke M . Commentary on the Endocrine Society Practice Guidelines: Consequences of adjustment of antihypertensive medication in screening for primary aldosteronism. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 12: 43‐48, 2011.
 94. Fischer E , Beuschlein F , Degenhart C , Jung P , Bidlingmaier M , Reincke M . Spontaneous remission of idiopathic aldosteronism after long‐term treatment with spironolactone: Results from the German Conn's Registry. Clin Endocrinol (Oxford) 76: 473‐477, 2012.
 95. Fischer E , Degenhart C , Reincke M . Improving adrenal venous sampling in primary aldosteronism. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab 7: 531‐540, 2012.
 96. Fishman LM , Kuchel O , Liddle GW , Michelakis AM , Gordon RD , Chick WT . Incidence of primary aldosteronism in uncomplicated ‘essential’ hypertension. A prospective study with elevated aldosterone secretion and suppressed plasma renin activity used as diagnostic criteria. JAMA 205: 497‐502, 1968.
 97. Fuchs‐Hammoser R , Schweiger M , Oelkers W . The effect of chronic low –dose infusion of ACTH (1‐24) on renin, renin‐substrate, aldosterone, and other corticosteroids in sodium replete and deplete man. Acta Endocrinol (Copenhagen) 95: 198‐206, 1980.
 98. Funder JW . Reconsidering the roles of the mineralocorticoid receptor. Hypertension 53 (Part 2): 286‐290, 2009.
 99. Funder JW . Primary aldosteronism: Clinical lateralization and costs. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97: 3450‐3452, 2012.
 100. Funder JW , Carey RM , Fardella C , Gomez‐Sanchez CE , Mantero F , Stowasser M , Young WF Jr , Montori VM . Case detection, diagnosis, and treatment of patients with primary aldosteronism: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93: 3266‐3281, 2008.
 101. Gabrilove JL , Sharma DC , Dorfman RI . Adrenocortical 11‐beta‐hydroxylase deficiency and virilism first manifest in the adult woman. N Engl J Med 272: 1189‐1194, 1965.
 102. Gadallah MF , Abreo K , Work J . Liddle's syndrome: An under‐recognized entity: A report of four cases including the first report in black individuals. Am J Kidney Dis 25: 924‐927, 1995.
 103. Gallay BJ , Ahmad S , Xu L , Toivola B , Davidson RC . Screening for primary aldosteronism without discontinuing hypertensive medications. Am J Kidney Dis 37: 699‐705, 2001.
 104. Ganguly A . Primary aldosteronism. N Engl J Med 339: 1828‐1834, 1998.
 105. Ganguly A , Dowdy AJ , Luetscher JA . Anomalous posture response of plasma aldosterone concentration n patient with aldosterone‐producing adenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 36: 401‐404, 1973.
 106. Ganguly A , Zager PG , Luetscher JA . Primary aldosteronism due to unilateral adrenal hyperplasia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 51: 1190‐1194, 1980.
 107. Geller DS . Mineralocorticoid resistance. Clin Endocrinol (Oxford) 62: 513‐520, 2005.
 108. Geller DS , Rodriguez‐Soriano J , Vallo Boado A , Schifter S , Bayer M , Chang SS , Lifton RP . Mutations in the mineralocorticoid receptor gene cause autosomal dominant pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1. Nature Genet 19: 279‐281, 1998.
 109. Geller DS , Zhang J , Wisgerhof MV , Shackleton C , Kashgarian M , Lifton RP . A novel form of human mendelian hypertension featuring nonglucocorticoid‐remediable aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93: 3117‐3123, 2008.
 110. George JM , Wright L , Bell NH , Barrter FC . The syndrome of primary aldosteronism. Am J Med 48: 343‐356, 1970.
 111. Georgiades CS , Hong K , Geschwind J‐F , Liddell R , Syed L , Kharlip J , Arepally A . Adjunctive use of C‐arm CT may eliminate technical failure in adrenal vein sampling. J Vasc Interv Radiol 18: 1102‐1105, 2007.
 112. Ghose RP , Hall PM , Bravo EL . Medical management of aldosterone‐producing adenomas. Ann Intern Med 131: 105‐108, 1999.
 113. Giacchetti G , Mulatero P , Mantero F , Veglio F , Boscaro M , Fallo F . Primary aldosteronism, a major form of low renin hypertension: From screening to diagnosis. Trends Endocrinol Metab 19: 104‐108, 2008.
 114. Giacchetti G , Ronconi V , Lucarelli G , Boscaro M , Mantero F . Analysis of screening and confirmatory tests in the diagnosis of primary aldosteronism: Need for a standardized approach. J Hypertension 24: 737‐745, 2006.
 115. Gittler RB , Fajans SS . Prismatic case. Primary aldosteronism (Conn's Syndrome). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80: 3438‐3441, 1995.
 116. Gomez‐Sanchez CE , Montgomery M , Ganguly A , Holland OB , Gomez‐Sanchez EP , Grim CE , Weinberger MH . Elevated urinary excretion of 18‐oxocortisol in glucocorticoid‐suppressible aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 59: 1022‐1024, 1984.
 117. Gomez‐Sanchez EP , Ahmad N , Romero DG , Gomez‐Sanchez CE . Origin of aldosterone in the rat heart. Endocrinology 145: 4796‐4802, 2004.
 118. Gonzaga CC , Gaddam KK , Ahmed MI , Pimenta E , Thomas SJ , Harding SM , Oparil S , Cofield SS , Calhoun DA . Severity of obstructive sleep apnea is related to aldosterone status in subjects with resistant hypertension. J Clin Sleep Med 6: 363‐368, 2010.
 119. Goodfriend TL , Elliott ME , Catt KJ . Angiotensin receptors and their antagonists. N Eng J Med 334: 1649‐1654, 1996.
 120. Gordon RD . Syndrome of hypertension and hyperkalemia with normal glomerular filtration rate. Hypertension 8: 93‐102, 1986.
 121. Gordon RD , Geddes RA , Pawsey CGK , O'Halloran MW . Hypertension and severe hyperkalaemia associated with suppression of renin and aldosterone and completely reversed by dietary sodium restriction. Aust Ann Med 4: 287‐294, 1970.
 122. Gordon RD , Laragh JH , Funder JW . Low renin hypertension states: Perspectives, unsolved problems, future research. Trends Endocrinol Metab 16: 108‐113, 2005.
 123. Gordon RD , Stowasser M , Klemm SA , Tunny TJ . Primary aldosteronism‐some genetic, morphological, and biochemical aspects of subtypes. Steroids 60: 35‐41, 1995.
 124. Gordon RD , Stowasser M , Rutherford JC . Primary aldosteronism: Are we diagnosing and operating on too few patients? World J Surg 25: 841‐947, 2001.
 125. Gordon RD , Stowasser M , Tunney TJ , Klemm SA , Rutherford JC . High incidence of primary aldosteronism in 199 patients referred with hypertension. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 21: 315‐318, 1994.
 126. Gordon RD , Ziesak MD , Tunny TJ , Stowasser M , Klemm SA . Evidence that primary aldosteronism may not be uncommon: 12% incidence among antihypertensive drug trial volunteers. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 20: 296‐298, 1993.
 127. Graham UM , Ellis PK , Hunter SJ , Leslie H , Mullan KR , Atkinson AB . 100 cases of primary aldosteronism: Careful choice of patients for surgery using adrenal venous sampling and CT imaging results in excellent blood pressure and potassium outcomes. Clin Endocrinol (Oxford) 76: 26‐32, 2012.
 128. Greene EL , Kren S , Hostetter TH . Role of aldosterone in the remnant kidney model in rats. J Clin Invest 98: 1063‐1068, 1996.
 129. Grim CE . Low renin essential hypertension. A variant of classic primary aldosteronism? Arch Intern Med 135: 347‐350, 1975.
 130. Grumbach MM , Biller BMK , Braunstein GD , Campbell KK , Carney JA , Godley PA , Harris EL , Lee JKT , Oertel YC , Posner MC , Schlechte JA , Wieand HS . Management of the clinically inapparent adrenal mass. Ann Intern Med 138: 424‐429, 2003.
 131. Gunnells JC Jr , Bath NM , Sode J , Robinson RR . Primary aldosteronism. Arch Intern Med 120: 568‐574, 1967.
 132. Guyton AC . Blood pressure control‐special role of the kidneys and body fluids. Science 252: 1813‐1816, 2001.
 133. Haab, F , Duclos JM , Guyenne T , Plouin P‐F , Corvol P . Renin secreting tumors: Diagnosis, conservative surgical approach and long‐ term results. J Urology 153: 1781‐1784, 1995.
 134. Hall JE , Granger JP , Smith MJ Jr , Premen AJ . Role of renal hemodynamics and arterial pressure in aldosterone “escape.” Hypertension 6: I183‐I192, 1984.
 135. Halperin F , Dluhy RG . Glucocorticoid‐remediable aldosteronism. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Amer 40: 333‐341, 2011.
 136. Hansson JH , Nelson‐Williams C , Suzuki H , Schild L , Shimkets R , Lu Y , Canessa C , Iwasaki T , Rossier B , Lifton RP . Hypertension caused by a truncated epithelial sodium channel γ subunit: Genetic heterogeneity of Liddle syndrome. Nature Genet 11: 76‐82, 1995.
 137. Hansson JH , Schild L , Lu Y , Wilson TA , Gautschi I , Shimkets R , Nelson‐Williams C , Rossier BC , Lifton RP . A de novo missense mutation of the β subunit of the epithelial sodium channel causes hypertension and Liddle syndrome, identifying a proline‐rich segment critical for regulation of channel activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 92: 11495‐11499, 1995.
 138. Hanukoglu A . Type 1 pseudohypoaldosteronism includes two clinically and genetically distinct entities with either renal or multiple target organ defects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 73: 936‐944, 1991.
 139. Hanukoglu A , Bistritzer T , Rakover Y , Mandelberg A . Pseudohypoaldosteronism with increased sweat and saliva electrolyte values and frequent lower respiratory tract infections mimicking cystic fibrosis. J Pediat 125: 752‐755, 1994.
 140. Hanukoglu A , Edelheit O , Shriki Y , Gizewska M , Dascal N , Hanukoglu I . Renin‐aldosterone response, urinary Na/K ratio and growth in pseudohypoaldosteronism patients with mutations in epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) subunit genes. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 111: 268‐274, 2008.
 141. Hattangady NG , Olala LO , Bollag WB , Rainey WE . Acute and chronic regulation of aldosterone production. Mol Cell Endocrinol 350: 151‐162, 2012.
 142. Healy JK . Pseudohypoaldosteronism type II. History, arguments and still some questions. Hypertension 63: 00‐00, 2014. Published ahead of print.
 143. Heitzmann D , Derand R , Jungbauer S , Bandulik S , Sterner C , Schweda F , El Wakil A , Lalli E , Guy N , Mengual R , Reichold M , Tegtmeier I , Bendahhou S , Gomez‐Sanchez CE , Aller MI , Wisden W , Weber A , Lesage F , Warth R , Barhanin J . Invalidation of TASK1 potassium channels disrupts adrenal gland zonation and mineralocorticoid homeostasis. EMBO J 27: 179‐187, 2008.
 144. Helmberg A , Ausserer B , Kofler R . Frame shift by insertion of 2 basepairs in codon 394 of CYP11B1 causes congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to steroid 11 beta‐hydroxylase deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 75: 1278‐1281, 1992.
 145. Hiramatsu K , Yamada T , Yukimura Y , Komiya I , Ichikawa K , Ishihara M , Nagata H , Izumiyama T . A screening test to identify aldosterone‐producing adenoma by measuring plasma renin activity: Results in hypertensive patients. Arch Intern Med 141: 1589‐1593, 1981.
 146. Hogan MJ , McRae J , Schambelan M , Biglieri EG . Location of aldosterone‐producing adenomas with 131I‐19‐iodocholesterol. N Engl J Med 294: 410‐414, 1976.
 147. Hogan MJ , Schambelan M , Biglieri EG . Concurrent hypercortisolism and hypermineralocorticoidism. Am J Med 62: 777‐782, 1977.
 148. Holland OB , Brown H , Kuhnert L , Fairchild C , Risk M , Gomez‐Sanchez CE . Further evaluation of saline infusion for the diagnosis of primary aldosteronism. Hypertension 6: 717‐723, 1984.
 149. Holland OB , Carr B . Modulation of aldosterone synthase messenger ribonucleic acid levels by dietary sodium and potassium and by adrenocorticotropin. Endocrinology 132: 2666‐2673, 1993.
 150. Hollenburg NK . Aldosterone in the development and progression of renal injury. Kidney Int 66: 1‐9, 2004.
 151. Horky K , Widimsky J Jr , Hradec E , Gregorova I , Hradec M . Long‐term results of surgical and conservative treatment of patients with primary aldosteronism. Exp Clin Endocrinol 90: 337‐346, 1987.
 152. Hurwitz S , Cohen RJ , Williams GH . Diurnal variation of aldosterone and plasma renin activity: Timing relation to melatonin and cortisol and consistency after prolonged bed rest. J Appl Physiol 96: 1406‐1414, 2004.
 153. Ichikawa I , Harris RC . Angiotensin actions in the kidney: Renewed insight into the old hormone. Kidney Int 40: 583‐596, 1991.
 154. Imai T , Yanase T , Waterman MR , Simpson ER , Pratt JR . Canadian Mennonites and individuals in the Friesland region of the Netherlands share the same molecular basis of 17 α hydroxylase deficiency. Human Genet 89: 285‐286, 1989.
 155. Irony I , Kater CE , Biglieri EG , Shackleton CHL . Correctable subsets of primary aldosteronism: Primary adrenal hyperplasia and renin responsive adenoma. Am J Hypertension 3: 576‐582, 1990.
 156. Ishidoya S , Ito A , Sakai K , Satoh M , Chiba Y , Sato F , Arai Y . Laparoscopic partial versus total adrenalectomy for aldosterone producing adenoma. J Urol 174: 40‐43, 2005.
 157. Jackson RV , Lafferty A , Torpy DJ , Stratakis C . New insights in familial hyperaldosteronism. Ann NY Acad Sci 970: 77‐88, 2002.
 158. Jackson WPU , Zilberg B , Lewis B , McKenzie D . Cushing's syndrome in childhood. Report of case of adrenocortical carcinoma with excessive aldosterone production. BMJ 2: 130‐133, 1958.
 159. Japanese Society for Hypertension. Secondary hypertension. Hypertension Res 32: 78‐90, 2009.
 160. Jeske Y , So A , Kelemen L , Sukor N , Willys C , Bulmer B , Gordon RD , Duffy D , Stowasser M . Examination of chromosome 7p22 candidate genes RBaK, PMS2, and GNA12 in familial hyperaldosteronism type II. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 35: 380‐385, 2008.
 161. Jeunemaitre X , Chatellier G , Kreft‐Jais C , Charru A , Devries C , Plouin, P‐F , Corvol P , Menard J . Efficacy and tolerance of spironolactone in essential hypertension. Am J Cardiol 60: 820‐825, 1987.
 162. Joint National Committee. The sixth report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Arch Intern Med 157: 2413‐2446, 1997.
 163. Jonsson JR , Klemm SA , Tunny TJ , Stowasser M , Gordon RD . A new genetic test for familial hyperaldosteronism type 1 aids in the detection of curable hypertension. Biochem Biophys Res Comm 207: 565‐571, 1995.
 164. Kaplan NW . Hypokalemia in the hypertensive patient, with observations on the incidence of primary aldosteronism. Ann Intern Med 66: 1079‐1090, 1967.
 165. Katz FH , Romfh P , Smith JA . Diurnal variation of plasma aldosterone, cortisol and renin activity in supine man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 40: 125‐134, 1975.
 166. Kem DC , Weinberger MH , Gomez‐Sanchez CE , Higgins JR , Kramer NJ . The role of ACTH in the episodic release of aldosterone in patients with idiopathic adrenal hyperplasia, hypertension, and hyperaldosteronism. J Lab Clin Med 88: 261‐270, 1976.
 167. Kem DC , Weinberger MH , Mayes DM , Nugent CA . Saline suppression of plasma aldosterone in hypertension. Arch Intern Med 128: 380‐386, 1971.
 168. Kempers MJE , Lenders JWM , van Outheusden L , van der Wilt GJ , Schultze Kool LJ , Hermus RMM , Deinum J . Systematic review: Diagnostic procedures to differentiate unilateral from bilateral adrenal abnormality in primary aldosteronism. Ann Intern Med 151: 329‐337, 2009.
 169. Kerem E , Bistritzer T , Hanukoglu A , Hofmann T , Zhou Z , Bennett W , MacLaughlin E , Barker P , Nash M , Quittell L , Boucher R , Homolya V , Keenan B , Knowles MR . Pulmonary epithelial sodium‐channel dysfunction and excess airway liquid in pseudohypoaldosteronism. N Engl J Med 341: 156‐162, 1999.
 170. Kessler SP , deS Senanayake P , Scheidemantel TS , Gomos JB , Rowe TM , Sen GC . Maintenance of normal blood pressure and renal functions are independent effects of angiotensin‐converting enzyme. J Biol Chem 278: 21105‐21112, 2003.
 171. Kifor I , Moore TJ , Fallo F , Sperling E , Chiou C‐Y , Menachery A , Williams GH . Potassium‐stimulated angiotensin release from superfused adrenal capsules and enzymatically dispersed cells of the zona glomerulosa. Endocrinology 129: 823‐831, 1991.
 172. Kline GA , Harvey A , Jones C , Hill MH , So B , Scott‐Douglas N , Pasieka JL . Adrenal vein sampling may not be a gold‐standard diagnostic test in primary aldosteronism: Final diagnosis depends upon which interpretation rule is used. Variable interpretation of adrenal vein sampling. Int Urol Nephrol 40: 1035‐1043, 2008.
 173. Kloos RT , Gross MD , Francis IR , Korobkin M , Shapiro B . Incidentally discovered adrenal masses. Endocr Rev 16: 460‐484, 1995.
 174. Komiya I , Koizumi Y , Kobayashi R , Kotani M , Yamada T , Maruyama Y . Concurrent hypersecretion of aldosterone and cortisol from the adrenal cortical adenoma. Am J Med 67:516‐518, 1979.
 175. Kono T , Ikeda F , Oseko F , Imura H , Tanimura H . Normotensive primary aldosteronism: Report of a case. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 52: 1009‐1013, 1981.
 176. Kosler A , Leiberman E , Sack J , Landau H , Benderly A , Moses SW , Cohen T . Clinical variability of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 11‐beta‐hydroxylase deficiency. Horm Res 16: 133‐141, 1982.
 177. Kucharz EJ . Forgotten description of primary hyperaldosteronism. Lancet 337: 1490, 1991.
 178. Kume K , Zylka MJ , Sriram S , Shearman LP , Weaver DR , Jin X , Maywood ES , Hastings MH , Reppert SM . mCRY1 and mCRY2 are essential components of the negative limb of the circadian clock feedback loop. Cell 98: 193‐205, 1999.
 179. Kupers EM , Amar L , Raynaud A , Plouin P‐F , Steichen O . A clinical prediction score to diagnose unilateral primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97: 3530‐3537, 2012.
 180. Kurtulmus N , Yarman S , Azizlerli H , Kapran Y . Co‐secretion of aldosterone and cortisol by an adrenocortical carcinoma. Hormone Res 62: 67‐70, 2004.
 181. Lalioti MD , Zhang J , Volkman HM , Kahle KT , Hoffmann KE , Toka HR , Nelson‐Williams C , Ellison DH , Flavell R , Booth CJ , Lu Y , Geller DS , Lifton RP . Wnk4 controls blood pressure and potassium homeostasis via regulation of mass and activity of the distal convoluted tubule. Nature Genet 38: 1124‐1132, 2006.
 182. Laragh JH . Laragh's 25 lessons in pathophysiology and 12 clinical pearls for treating hypertension. Am J Hypertension 14: 186‐194, 2001.
 183. Laragh JH , Ledinham JGC , Sommers SC . Secondary aldosteronism and reduced plasma renin in hypertensive disease. Trans Assoc Am Physicians 80: 168‐182, 1967.
 184. Laragh JH , Letcher RL , Pickering TG . Renin profiling for diagnosis and treatment of hypertension. JAMA 241: 151‐156, 1979.
 185. Lasarides A , Brown JJ , Davies DL , Fraser R , Robertson JIS , Lever AF . Arterial blood pressure and plasma and body electrolytes in idiopathic hyperaldosteronism: A comparison with primary hyperaldosteronism (Conn's syndrome) and essential hypertension. J Hypertension 2: 329‐336, 1984.
 186. Lavery GG , Ronconi V , Draper N , Rabbitt EH , Lyons V , Chapman KE , Walker EA , McTernan CL , Giachettia G , Mantero F , Seckl JR , Edwards RW , Connell JMC , Hewison M , Stewart PM . Late‐onset apparent mineralocorticoid excess caused by novel compound heterozygous mutations in the HSD11B2 gene. Hypertension 42: 123‐129, 2003.
 187. Lemarie CA , Paradis P , Schiffrin EL . New insights in signaling cascades induced by cross‐talk between angiotensin II and aldosterone. J Mol Med 86: 673‐678, 2008.
 188. Letavernier E , Peyrard S , Amar L , Zinzindohoue F , Fiquet B , Plouin P‐F . Blood pressure outcome of adrenalectomy in patients with primary aldosteronism with or without unilateral adenoma. J Hypertension 26: 1816‐1823, 2008.
 189. Levine LS , Rauh W , Gottesdiener K , Chow D , Gunczler P , Rapaport R , Pang S , Schneider B , New MI . New studies of the 11‐beta‐hydoxylase and 18‐hydroxylase enzymes in the hypertensive form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 50: 258‐263, 1980.
 190. Levinson PD , Zadik Z , Hamilton BPM , Mersey JH , White RI , Kowarski AA . Adrenal vein epinephrine levels: A useful aid in venous sampling for primary aldosteronism. Ann Intern Med 97: 690‐693, 1982.
 191. Li A , Tedde R , Krozowski ZS , Pala A , Li KX , Shackleton CH , Mantero F , Palermo M , Stewart PM . Molecular basis for hypertension in the “type II variant” of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. Am J Human Genet 63: 370‐379, 1998.
 192. Liddle GW , Bledsoe T , Coppage WS . A familial renal disorder simulating primary aldosteronism but with negligible aldosterone secretion. Trans Assoc Am Physicians 76: 199‐213, 1963.
 193. Lifton RP , Dluhy RG , Powers M , Rich GM , Cook S , Ulick S , Lalouel JM . A chimeric 11 beta‐hydroxylase/aldosterone synthase gene causes glucocorticoid–remediable aldosteronism and human hypertension. Nature 355: 262‐265, 1992.
 194. Lim PO , Struthers AD , MacDonald TM . The neurohormonal natural history of essential hypertension: Towards primary or tertiary aldosteronism? J Hypertension 20: 11‐15, 2002.
 195. Lingham RK , Sohaib SA , Rockall AG , Isidori AM , Chew S , Monson JP , Grossman A , Besser GM , Reznek RH . Diagnostic performance of CT versus MR in detecting aldosterone‐producing adenoma in primary aldosteronism (Conn's syndrome). Eur Radiol 14: 1787‐1792, 2004.
 196. Litchfield WR , Anderson BF , Weiss RJ , Lifton RP , Dluhy RG . Intracranial aneurism and hemorrhagic stroke in glucocorticoid‐remediable aldosteronism. Hypertension 31: 445‐450, 1998.
 197. Litynski M . Nadcisnienie tetnicze wywolane guzami korowo‐nad‐nerczowymi. Pol Tyg Lek 8: 204‐208, 1953.
 198. Loh KC , Koay ES , Khaw M‐C , Emmanuel SC , Young WF Jr . Prevalence of primary aldosteronism among Asian hypertensive patients in Singapore. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85: 2854‐2859, 2000.
 199. Lombes M , Alfaidy N , Eugene E , Lessana A , Farman N , Bonvalet J‐P . Prerequisite for cardiac aldosterone action: Mineralocorticoid receptor and 11 β‐hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in the human heart. Circulation 92: 175‐182, 1995.
 200. Lotshaw DP . Biophysical and pharmacological characteristics of native two‐pore domain TASK channels in rat adrenal glomerulosa cells. J Membr Biol 210: 51‐70, 2006.
 201. Lovati E , Ferrari P , Dick B , Jostarndt K , Frey BM , Frey FJ , Schorr U , Sharma AM . Molecular basis of human salt sensitivity: The role of the 11β‐hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84: 3745‐3749, 1999.
 202. Lush DJ , King JA , Fray JCS . Pathophysiology of low renin syndromes: Sites of renal renin secretory impairment and prorenin overexpression. Kidney Int 43: 983‐999, 1993.
 203. Lyons DF , Kem DC , Brown RD , Hanson CS , Carollo ML . Single dose captopril as a diagnostic tool for primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 57: 892‐896, 1983.
 204. Magill SB . Adrenal vein sampling: An overview. Endocrinologist 11: 357‐363, 2001.
 205. Magill SB , Raff H , Shaker JL , Brickner RC , Knechtges TE , Kehoe ME , Findling JW . Comparison of adrenal vein sampling and computed tomography in the differentiation of primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86: 1066‐1071, 2001.
 206. Mansfield TA , Simon DB , Farfel Z , Bia M , Tucci JR , Lebel M , Gutkin M , Vialettes B , Christofilis MA , Kauppinen‐Makelin R , Mayan H , Risch N , Lifton RP . Multilocus linkage of familial hyperkalaemia and hypertension, pseudohypoaldosteronism type II, to chromosomes 1q31‐42 and 17p11‐q21. Nature Genet 16: 202‐205, 1997.
 207. Martin JM , Calduch L , Monteagudo C , Alonso V , Garcia L , Jorda E . Clinico‐pathological analysis of the cutaneous lesions of a patient with type 1 pseudohypoaldosteronism. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 19: 377‐379, 2005.
 208. Mattson C , Young WF Jr . Primary aldosteronism: Diagnostic and treatment strategies. Nature Clin Prac Nephrol 2: 198‐208, 2006.
 209. McAreavey D , Murray GD , Lever AF , Robertson JIA . Similarity of idiopathic aldosteronism and essential hypertension. Hypertension 5: 116‐121, 1983.
 210. Medeau V , Assie G , Zennaro MC , Clauser E , Plouin P‐F , Jeunemaitre X . Familial aspect of primary hyperaldosteronism: Analysis of families compatible with primary hyperaldosteronism type 2 (in French). Ann Endocrinol (Paris) 66: 240‐246, 2005.
 211. Medeau V , Moreau F , Trinquart L , Clemessy M , Wemeau J‐L , Vantyghem MC , Plouin P‐F , Reznik Y . Clinical and biochemical characteristics of normotensive patients with primary aldosteronism: A comparison with hypertensive cases. Clin Endocrinol (Oxford) 69: 20‐28, 2008.
 212. Melby JC , Sparks RF , Dale SL , Egdahl RH , Kahn PC . Diagnosis and localization of aldosterone‐producing adenomas by adrenal‐vein catheterization. N Engl J Med 277: 1050‐1056, 1967.
 213. Menard J . The 45‐year story of the development of an antialdosterone more specific than spironolactone. Mol Cell Endocrinol 217: 45‐52, 2004.
 214. Meneton P , Galan P , Bertrais S , Heudes D , Hercberg S , Menard J . High plasma aldosterone and low renin predict blood pressure increase and hypertension in middle‐aged Caucasian populations. J Hum Hypertension 22: 550‐558, 2008.
 215. Mengozzi G , Rossato D , Bertello C , Garrone C , Milan A , Pagni R , Veglio F , Mulatero P . Rapid cortisol assay during adrenal vein sampling in patients with primary aldosteronism. Clin Chem 53: 1968‐1971, 2007.
 216. Meria P , Kempf BF , Hemieu JF , Plouin P‐F , Duclos JM . Laparoscopic management of primary aldosteronism: Clinical experience with 212 cases. J Urol 169: 32‐35, 2003.
 217. Michelakis AM , Yoshida H , Dormois JC . Plasma renin activity and plasma aldosterone during the normal menstrual cycle. Am J Obstet Gynecol 123: 724‐726, 1975.
 218. Mihailidou AS , Le TYL , Mardini M , Funder JW . Glucocorticoids activate cardiac mineralocorticoid receptors during experimental myocardial infarction. Hypertension 54: 1306‐1312, 2009.
 219. Miller DL . Endocrine angiography and venous sampling. Radiolog Clin N Amer 31: 1051‐1067, 1993.
 220. Milliez P , Girerd X , Plouin P‐F , Blacher J , Safar ME , Mourad J‐J . Evidence for an increased rate of cardiovascular events in patients with primary aldosteronism. J Am Coll Cardiol 45: 1243‐1248, 2005.
 221. Miotto D , De Toni R , Pitter G , Seccia TM , Motta R , Vincenzi M , Feltrin G , Rossi GP . Impact of accessory hepatic veins on adrenal vein sampling for identification of surgically correctable primary aldosteronism. Hypertension 54: 885‐889, 2009.
 222. Mitsuuchi T , Kawamoto T , Miyahara K , Ulick S , Morton DH , Naiki Y , Kuribayashi I , Toda K , Hara T , Orii T , Yasuda K , Miura K , Yamamoto Y , Imura H , Shizuta Y . Congenitally defective aldosterone biosynthesis in humans: Inactivation of the P‐450C18 gene (CYP11B2) due to nucleotide deletion in CMO I deficient patients. Biochem Biophys Res Comm 190: 864‐869, 1993.
 223. Montezano AC , Touyz RM . Networking between systemic angiotensin II and cardiac mineralocorticoid receptors. Hypertension 52: 1016‐1018, 2008.
 224. Mosso L , Carvajal C , Gonzalez A , Barraza A , Avila F , Montero J , Huete A , Gederlini A , Fardella CE . Primary aldosteronism and hypertensive disease. Hypertension 42: 161‐165, 2003.
 225. Mulatero P , Bertello C , Garrone C , Rossato D , Mengozzi G , Verhovez A , Fallo F , Veglio F . Captopril test can give misleading results in patients with suspect primary aldosteronism. Hypertension 50: e26‐e27, 2007.
 226. Mulatero P , Bertello C , Rossato D , Mengozzi G , Milan A , Garrone C , Giraudo G , Passarino G , Garabello D , Verhovez A , Rabbia F , Veglio F . Roles of clinical criteria, computed tomography scan, and adrenal vein sampling in differential diagnosis of primary aldosteronism subtypes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93: 1366‐1371, 2008.
 227. Mulatero P , Bertello C , Sukor N , Gordon R , Rossato D , Daunt N , Leggett D , Mengozzi G , Veglio F , Stowasser M . Impact of different diagnostic criteria during adrenal vein sampling on reproducibility of subtype diagnosis in patients with primary aldosteronism. Hypertension 55: 667‐673, 2010.
 228. Mulatero P , Milan A , Fallo F , Regolisti G , Pizzolo F , Fardella C , Mosso L , Marafetti L , Veglio F , Maccario M . Comparison of confirmatory tests for the diagnosis of primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91: 2618‐2623, 2006.
 229. Mulatero P , Monticone S , Bertello C , Tizzani D , Iannaccone A , Crudo V , Veglio F . Evaluation of primary aldosteronism. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 17: 188‐193, 2010.
 230. Mulatero P , Rabbia F , Milan A , Paglieri C , Morello F , Chiandussi L , Veglio F . Drug effects on aldosterone/plasma renin activity ratio in primary aldosteronism. Hypertension 40: 897‐902, 2002.
 231. Mulatero P , Stowasser M , Loh KC , Fardella CE , Gordon RD , Mosso L , Gomez‐Sanchez CE , Veglio F , Young WF Jr . Increased diagnosis of primary aldosteronism including surgically correctable forms, in centers from five continents. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89: 1045‐1050, 2004.
 232. Mulatero P , Tauber P , Zennaro M‐C , Monticone S , Lang K , Beuschlein F , Fischer E , Tizzani D , Pallauf A , Viola A , Amar L , Williams TA , Strom TM , Graf E , Bandulik S , Penton D , Plouin P‐F , Warth R , Allolio B , Jeunemaitre X , Veglio F , Reincke, M . KCNJ5 mutations in European families with nonglucocorticoid remediable familial hyperaldosteronism. Hypertension 59: 235‐240, 2012.
 233. Mulatero P , Tizzani D , Viola A , Bertello C , Monticone S , Mengozzi G , Schiavone D , Williams TA , Einaudi S , La Grotta A , Rabbia F , Veglio F . Prevalence and characteristics of familial hyperaldosteronism: The PATOGEN study (Primary Aldosteronism in Torino‐Genetic Forms). Hypertension 58: 797‐803, 2011.
 234. Mune T , Rogerson FM , Nikkila H , Agarwal AK , White PC . Human hypertension caused by mutations in the kidney isoenzyme of 11β‐hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Nature Genet 10: 394‐399, 1995.
 235. Nadler JL , Hsueh W , Horton R . Therapeutic effect of calcium channel blockade in primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 60: 896‐899, 1985.
 236. Naiki Y , Kawamoto T , Mitsuuchi Y , Miyahara K , Toda K , Orii T , Imura H , Shizuta Y . A nonsense mutation (TGG [Trp116] →TAG [Stop]) in CYP11B1 causes steroid 11 beta‐hydroxylase deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 77: 1677‐1682, 1993.
 237. National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection. Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults. Executive summary of the Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 285: 2486‐2497, 2001.
 238. New MI (with the technical assistance of Suvannakul L ). Male pseudohermaphroditism due to 17 α hydroxylase deficiency. J Clin Invest 49: 1930‐1941, 1970.
 239. New MI , Levine LS , Biglieri EG , Pareira J , Ulick S . Evidence for an unidentified steroid in a child with apparent mineralocorticoid hypertension. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 44: 924‐933, 1977.
 240. Nieman LK , Biller BMK , Findling JW , Newell‐Price J , Savage MO , Stewart PM , Montori VM . The diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome. An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93: 1526‐1540, 2008.
 241. Nimkarn S , New MI . Steroid 11beta‐hydroxylase deficiency congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Trends Endocrinol Metab 19: 96‐99, 2008.
 242. Nishikawa T , Saito J , Omura M . Prevalence of primary aldosteronism: Should we screen for primary aldosteronism before treating hypertensive patients with medications? Endocrinol J 54: 487‐495, 2007.
 243. Nishimoto K , Nakagawa K , Li D , Kosaka T , Oya M , Mikami S , Shibata H , Itoh H , Mitani F , Yamazaki T , Ogishima T , Suematsu M , Mikai K . Adrenocortical zonation in humans under normal and pathological conditions. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95: 2296‐2305, 2010.
 244. Nishimura M , Uzu T , Fujii T , Kuroda S , Nakamura S , Inenaga T , Kimura G . Cardiovascular complications in patients with primary aldosteronism. Am J Kidney Dis 33: 261‐266, 1999.
 245. Nishizaka MK , Zaman MA , Calhoun DA . Efficacy of low‐dose spironolactone in subjects with resistant hypertension. Am J Hypertension 16: 925‐930, 2003.
 246. Nomura K , Kusakabe K , Maki M , Ito Y , Aiba M , Demura H . Iodomethylcholesterol uptake in an aldosteronoma shown by dexamethasone‐suppression scintigraphy: Relationship to adenoma size and functional activity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 71: 825‐830, 1990.
 247. Nwariaku FR , Miller BS , Auchus R , Holt S , Watumull L , Dolmatch B , Nesbitt S , Vongpatanasin W , Victor R , Wians F , Livingston E , Snyder WH III . Primary hyperaldosteronism: Effect of adrenal vein sampling on surgical outcome. Arch Surg 141: 497‐502, 2006.
 248. Oberfield SE , Levine LS , Carey RM , Greig F , Ulick S , New MI . Metabolic and blood pressure responses to hydrocortisone in the syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 56: 332‐339, 1983.
 249. Ogishima T , Suzuki H , Hata J , Mitani F , Ishimura Y . Zone‐specific expression of aldosterone synthase cytochrome P‐450 and cytochrome P‐450 11 beta in rat adrenal cortex: Histochemical basis for the functional zonation. Endocrinology 130: 2971‐2977, 1992.
 250. Ohno F , Harada H , Komatsu K , Saijo K , Miyoshi K . Two cases of pseudoaldosteronism (Liddle's Syndrome) in siblings. Endocrinol Japonica 22: 163‐167, 1975.
 251. Oliver JA , Sciacca RR . Local generation of angiotensin II as a mechanism of regulation of peripheral vascular tone in the rat. J Clin Invest 74: 1247‐1251, 1984.
 252. Omura M , Sasano H , Fujiwara T , Yamaguchi K , Nishikawa T . Unique cases of unilateral hyperaldosteronism due to multiple adrenocortical micronodules, which can only be detected by selective adrenal venous sampling. Metabolism 51: 350‐355, 2002.
 253. Padfield PL . Prevalence and role of a raised aldosterone to renin ratio in the diagnosis of primary aldosteronism: A debate on the scientific logic of the use of the ratio in practice. Clin Endocrinol (Oxford), 59: 422‐426, 2003.
 254. Padfield PL , Brown JJ , Davies D , Fraser R , Lever AF , Morton JJ , Robertson JI . The myth of idiopathic hyperaldosteronism. Lancet 2: 83‐84, 1981.
 255. Palermo M , Delitala G , Mantero F , Stewart PM , Shackleton CH . Congenital deficiency of 11beta‐hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (apparent mineralocorticoid excess syndrome): Diagnostic value of urinary free cortisol and cortisone. J Endocrinol Invest 24: 17‐23, 2001.
 256. Palermo M , Delitala G , Sorba G , Cossu M , Satta R , Tedde R , Pala A , Shackleton CHL . Does kidney transplantation normalize cortisol metabolism in apparent mineralocorticoid excess? J Endocrinol Invest 23: 457‐462, 2000.
 257. Parajes S , Loidi L , Reisch N , Dhir V , Rose IT , Hampel R , Quinkler M , Conway GS , Castro‐Feijoo L , Araujo‐Vilar D , Pombo M , Dominguez F , Williams EL , Cole TR , Kirk JM , Kaminsky E , Rumbsy G , Arlt W , Krone N . Functional consequences of seven novel mutations in the CYP11B1 gene: Four mutations associated with nonclassic and three mutations causing classic 11 (beta)‐hydroxylase deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95: 779‐788, 2010.
 258. Parsa AA , New MI . Low‐renin hypertension of childhood. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Amer 40: 369‐377, 2011.
 259. Parthasarathy HK , Menard J , White WB , Young WF Jr , Williams GH , Williams B , Ruilope LM , McInnes GT , Connell JM , MacDonald TM . A double‐blind, randomized study comparing the antihypertensive effect of eplerenone and spironolactone in patients with hypertension and evidence of primary aldosteronism. J Hypertension 29: 980‐990, 2011.
 260. Pascoe L , Curnow KM , Slutsker L , Rosler A , White PC . Mutations in the human CYP11B2 (aldosterone synthase) gene causing corticosterone methyloxidase II deficiency. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89: 4996‐5000, 1992.
 261. Paver WK , Pauline GJ . Hypertension and hyperpotassaemia without renal disease in a young male. Med J Aust 2: 305‐306, 1964.
 262. Peixoto AJ , White WB . Circadian blood pressure: Clinical implications based on the pathophysiology of its variability. Kidney Int 71: 855‐860, 2007.
 263. Penton D , Bandulik S , Schweda F , Haubs S , Tauber P , Reichold M , Cong LD , El Wakil A , Budde T , Lesage F , Lalli E , Zennaro M‐C , Warth R , Barhanin J . TASK3 potassium channel gene invalidation causes low renin and salt‐sensitive arterial hypertension. Endocrinology 153: 4740‐4748, 2012.
 264. Peter M , Partsch CJ , Sippell WG . Multisteroid analysis in children with terminal aldosterone biosynthesis defects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80: 1622‐1627, 1995.
 265. Phillips JL , Walther MM , Pezzullo JC , Rayford W , Choyke PL , Berman AA , Linehan WM , Doppman JL , Gill JR Jr . Predictive value of preoperative tests in discriminating bilateral adrenal hyperplasia from an aldosterone producing adenoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85: 4526‐4533, 2000.
 266. Piaditis GP , Kaltsas GA , Androulakis II , Gouli A , Makras P , Papadogias D , Dimitriou K , Ragkou D , Markou A , Vamvakidis K , Zografos G , Chrousos G . High prevalence of autonomous cortisol and aldosterone secretion from adrenal adenomas. Clin Endocrinol (Oxford) 71: 772‐778, 2009.
 267. Pimenta E , Gordon RD , Ahmed AH , Cowley D , Leano R , Marwick TH , Stowasser M . Cardiac dimensions are largely determined by dietary salt in patients with primary aldosteronism: Results of a case‐control study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96: 2813‐2820, 2011.
 268. Pitt B , Reichek N , Willenbrock R , Zannad F , Phillips RA , Roniker B , Kleiman J , Krause S , Burns D , Williams GH . Effects of eplerenone, enalapril, and eplerenone/enalapril in patients with essential hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy. Circulation 108: 1831‐1838, 2003.
 269. Pitt B , Remme W , Zannad F , Neaton J , Martinez F , Roniker B , Rittman R , Hurley S , Kleiman J , Gatlin M , Eplerenone Post‐Acute Myocardial Infarction Heart Failure Efficacy and Survival Study Investigators. Eplerenone, a selective aldosterone blocker, in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 348: 1309‐1321, 2003.
 270. Pitt B , Zannad F , Remme WJ , Cody R , Castaigne A , Perez A , Palensky J , Wittes J . The effect of spironolactone on morbidity and mortality in patients with severe heart failure. Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med 341: 709‐717, 1999.
 271. Portaluppi F , Bagni B , degli Uberti E , Montanari L , Cavallini R , Trasforini G , Margutti A , Ferlini M , Zanella M , Parti M . Circadian rhythms of atrial natriuretic peptide, renin, aldosterone, cortisol, blood pressure and heart rate in normal and hypertensive subjects. J Hypertension 8: 85‐95, 1990.
 272. Pratt JH . Role of angiotensin II in potassium‐mediated stimulation of aldosterone secretion in the dog. J Clin Invest 70: 667‐ 672, 1982.
 273. Pratt JH , Jones JJ , Miller JZ . Racial differences in aldosterone excretion and plasma aldosterone concentrations in children. N Engl J Med 321: 1152, 1989.
 274. Pratt‐Ubunama MN , Hishizaka MK , Boedefeld RL , Cofield SS , Harding SM , Calhoun DA . Plasma aldosterone is related to severity of obstructive sleep apnea in subjects with resistant hypertension. Chest 131: 453‐459, 2007.
 275. Priestley JT , Ferris DO , ReMine WH , Woolner LB . Primary aldosteronism: Surgical management and pathologic findings. Mayo Clin Proc 43: 761‐775, 1968.
 276. Prosser PR , Sutherland CM , Scullin DR . Localization of adrenal aldosterone adenoma by computerized tomography. N Engl J Med 300: 1278‐1279, 1979.
 277. Proye CA , Milliez EA , Carnaille BM , Lecomte‐Houcke M , Decoulx M , Wemeau JL , Lefebvre J , Racadot A , Ernst O , Huglo D , Carre A . Essential hypertension: First reason for persistent hypertension after unilateral adrenalectomy for primary aldosteronism. Surgery 124: 1128‐1133, 1998.
 278. Pujo L , Fagart J , Gary F , Papadomitrious DT , Claes A , Jeunemaitre X , Zennaro MC . Mineralocorticoid receptor mutations are the principal cause of renal type 1 pseudohypoaldosteronism. Human Mutat 28: 33‐40, 2007.
 279. Quillo AR , Grant CS , Thompson GB , Farley DR , Richards ML , Young WF . Primary aldosteronism: Results of adrenalectomy for nonsingle adenoma. J Am Coll Surg 213: 106‐113, 2011.
 280. Quinkler M , Stewart PM . Hypertension and the cortisol‐cortisone shuttle. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88: 2384‐2392, 2003.
 281. Quinn SJ , Cornwall MC , Williams GH . Electrophysiological response to angiotensin II of isolated rat adrenal glomerulosa cells. Endocrinology 120: 1581‐1589, 1987.
 282. Quinn SJ , Williams GH . Regulation of aldosterone secretion. Ann Rev Physiol 50: 409‐426, 1988.
 283. Rainey WE . Adrenal zonation: Clues from 11 beta‐hydroxylase and aldosterone synthase. Mol Cell Endocrinol 151: 151‐160, 1999.
 284. Ramsay LE , Hettiarachchi J , Fraser R , Morton JJ . Amiloride, spironolactone, and potassium chloride in thiazide‐treated hypertensive patients. Clin Pharmacol Ther 4: 533‐543, 1980.
 285. Reincke M , Meisinger C , Holle R . Is primary aldosteronism associated with diabetes mellitus? Results of the German Conn's Registry. Horm Metab Res 42: 435‐439, 2010.
 286. Reincke M , Rump LC , Quinkler M , Hahner S , Diederich S , Lorenz R , Seufert J , Schirpenbach C , Beuschlein F , Bidlingmaier M , Meisinger C , Holle R , Endres S , for the Participants of the German Conn's Registry. Risk factors associated with a low glomerular filtration rate in primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94: 869‐875, 2009.
 287. Rich GM , Ulick S , Cook S , Wang JZ , Lifton RP , Dluhy RG . Glucocorticoid‐remediable aldosteronism in a large kindred: Clinical spectrum and diagnosis using a characteristic biochemical phenotype. Ann Intern Med 15: 813‐820, 1992.
 288. Robertson PW , Klidjian A , Harding LK , Walters G , Lee MR , Robb‐Smith AHT . Hypertension due to a renin‐secreting tumor. Am J Med 43: 963‐976, 1967.
 289. Rocha R , Chander PN , Khanna K , Zuckerman A , Stier CT Jr . Mineralocorticoid blockade reduces vascular injury in stroke‐prone hypertensive rats. Hypertension 31: 451‐458, 1998.
 290. Rocha R , Chander PN , Zuckerman A , Stier CT Jr . Role of aldosterone in renal vascular injury in stroke‐prone hypertensive rats. Hypertension 33: 232‐237, 1999.
 291. Rocha R , Stier CT Jr . Pathophysiological effects of aldosterone in cardiovascular tissues. Trends Endocrinol Metab 12: 308‐314, 2001.
 292. Rodriques JA , Biglieri EG , Schambelan M . Pseudoaldosteronism with renal tubular resistance to mineralocorticoid hormones. Trans Assoc Am Phys 94: 172‐182, 1981.
 293. Roland BL , Krozowski ZS , Funder JW . Glucocorticoid receptor, mineralocorticoid receptors, 11β‐hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase‐1 and ‐2 expression in rat brain and kidney: In situ studies. Mol Cell Endocrinol 111: R1‐R7, 1995.
 294. Rosler A , Leiberman E , Sack J , Landau H , Benderly A , Moses SW , Cohen T . Clinical variability of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 11 beta hydroxylase deficiency. Horm Res 16: 133‐141, 1982.
 295. Ross EJ . Conn's syndrome due to adrenal hyperplasia with hypertrophy of zona glomerulosa, relieved by unilateral adrenalectomy. Am J Med 39: 994‐1002, 1965.
 296. Rossi E , Regolisti G , Negro A , Sani C , Davoli S , Perazzoli F . High prevalence of primary aldosteronism using post captopril plasma aldosterone to renin ratio as a screening test among Italian hypertensives. Am J Hypertension 15: 896‐902, 2002.
 297. Rossi GP . Diagnosis and treatment of primary aldosteronism. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Amer 40: 313‐332, 2011.
 298. Rossi GP , Auchus RJ , Brown M , Lenders JWM , Naruse M , Plouin PF , Satoh F , Young WF Jr . An expert consensus statement on use of adrenal vein sampling for the subtyping of primary aldosteronism. Hypertension 63: 151‐160, 2014.
 299. Rossi GP , Barisa M , Allolio B , Auchus RJ , Amar L , Cohen D , Degenhart C , Deinum J , Fischer E , Gordon R , Kickuth R , Kline G , Lacroix A , Magill S , Miotto D , Naruse M , Nishikawa T , Omura M , Pimenta E , Plouin P‐F , Quinckler M , Reincke M , Rossi E , Rump LC , Satoh F , Kool LS , Seccia TM , Stowasser M , Tanabe A , Trerotola S , Vonend O , Widimsky J Jr , Wu K‐D , Wu V‐C , Pessina AC . The adrenal vein sampling international study (AVIS) for identifying the major subtypes of primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97: 1606‐1614, 2012.
 300. Rossi GP , Barisa M , Belfiore A , Desideri G , Ferri C , Letizia C , Maccario M , Morganti A , Palumbo G , Patalano A , Roman E , Seccia TM , Pessina AC , Mantero F , for the PAPY study investigators. The aldosterone‐renin ratio based on the plasma renin activity and the direct renin assay for diagnosing aldosterone‐producing adenomas. J Hypertension 28: 1892‐1899, 2010.
 301. Rossi GP , Bernini G , Caliumi C , Desideri G , Fabris B , Ferri C , Ganzaroli C , Giacchetti G , Letizia C , Maccario M , Mallamaci F , Mannelli M , Mattarello MJ , Moretti A , Palumbo G , Parenti G , Porteri E , Semplicini A , Rizzoni D , Rossi E , Boscaro M , Pessina AC , Mantero F , PAPY Study Investigators. A prospective study of the prevalence of primary aldosteronism in 1,125 hypertensive patients. J Am Coll Cardiol 48: 2293‐2300, 2006.
 302. Rossi GP , Bernini G , Desideri G , Fabris B , Ferro C , Giachetti G , Letizia C , Maccario M , Mannelli M , Matterello M‐J , Montemurro D , Palumbo G , Rizzoni D , Rossi E , Pessina AC , Mantero F , for the PAPY Study Participants. Renal damage in primary aldosteronism. Results of the PAPY study. Hypertension 48: 232‐238, 2006.
 303. Rossi GP , Cesari M , Cuspidi C , Maiolino G , Cicala MV , Bisogni V , Mantero F , Pessina AC . Long‐term control of arterial hypertension and regression of left ventricular hypertrophy with treatment of primary aldosteronism. Hypertension 62: 62‐69, 2013.
 304. Rossi GP , Ganzaroli C , Miotto D , De Toni R , Palumbo G , Feltrin GP , Mantero F , Pessina AC . Dynamic testing with high‐dose adrenocorticotrophic hormone does not improve lateralization of aldosterone oversecretion in primary aldosteronism patients. J Hypertension 24: 371‐379, 2006.
 305. Rossi GP , Pessina AC , Heagerty AM . Primary aldosteronism: An update on screening, diagnosis and treatment. J Hypertension 26: 613‐621, 2008.
 306. Rossi GP , Pitter G , Bernante P , Motta R , Feltrin G , Miotto D . Adrenal vein sampling for primary aldosteronism: The assessment of selectivity and lateralization of aldosterone excess baseline and after adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulation. J Hypertension 26: 989‐997, 2008.
 307. Rossi GP , Sacchetto A , Chiesura‐Corona M , De Toni R , Gallina M , Feltrin GP , Pessina AC . Identification of the etiology of primary aldosteronism with adrenal vein sampling in patients with equivocal computed tomography and magnetic resonance findings: Results in 104 consecutive cases. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86: 1083‐1090, 2001.
 308. Rossi GP , Sacchetto A , Pavan E , Palatini P , Graniero GR , Canali C , Pessina AC . Remodeling of the left ventricle in primary aldosteronism due to Conn's adenoma. Circulation 95: 1471‐1478, 1997.
 309. Rossi GP , Sacchetto A , Pieralberto V , Canali C , Graniero GR , Palatini P , Pessina AC . Changes in left ventricular anatomy and function in hypertension and primary aldosteronism. Hypertension 27: 1039‐1045, 1996.
 310. Rossi H , Kim A , Prinz RA . Primary aldosteronism in the era of laparoscopic adrenalectomy. American Surg 68: 253‐256, 2002.
 311. Rossi R , Tauchmanova I , Luciano A , Di Martino M , Battista C , Del Viscovo L , Nuzzo V , Lombardi G . Subclinical Cushing's syndrome in patients with adrenal incidentalomas: Clinical and biochemical features. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85: 1440‐1448, 2000.
 312. Rossier BC . The 1996 Homer Smith Award Lecture. Cum grano salis: The epithelial sodium channel and the control of blood pressure. J Am Soc Nephrol 8: 980‐992, 1997.
 313. Rossier BC . Negative regulators of sodium transport in the kidney: Key factors in understanding salt‐sensitive hypertension? J Clin Invest 111: 947‐950, 2003.
 314. Rossier BC . Hypertension finds a new rhythm. Nature Med 16: 27‐28, 2010.
 315. Rossier BC , Pradervand S , Schild L , Hummler E . Epithelial sodium channel and the control of sodium balance: Interaction between genetic and environmental factors. Ann Rev Physiol 64: 877‐897, 2002.
 316. Rossier BC , Schild L . Epithelial sodium channel. Mendelian versus essential hypertension. Hypertension 52: 595‐600, 2008.
 317. Sadee W , Dagcioglu M , Schroder R . Pharmacokinetics of spironolactone canrenone, and canrenoate‐K in humans. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 185: 686‐695, 1973.
 318. Sala GB , Hayashi K , Catt KJ , Dufau ML . Adrenocorticotropin action in isolated adrenal cells. The intermediate role of cyclic AMP in stimulation of corticosterone synthesis. J Biol Chem 254: 3861‐3865, 1979.
 319. Sarkar SD , Cohen EL , Beierwaltes WH , Ice RD , Cooper R , Gold EN . A new and superior adrenal imaging agent, I131‐6beta‐iodomethyl‐19‐nor‐choleterol (NP‐59): Evaluation in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 45: 353‐362, 1977.
 320. Sartorato P , Khaldi Y , Lapeyraque AL , Armanini D , Kuhnle U , Salomon R , Caprio M , Viengchareun S , Lombes M , Zennaro MC . Inactivating mutations of the mineralocorticoid receptor in type 1 pseudoaldosteronism. Mol Cell Endocrinol 217: 119‐125, 2004.
 321. Savard S , Amar L , Plouin P‐F , Steichen O . Cardiovascular complications associated with primary aldosteronism. A controlled cross‐sectional study. Hypertension 62: 331‐336, 2013.
 322. Sawka AM , Young WF , Thompson GB , Grant CS , Farley DR , Leibson C , van Heerden JA . Primary aldosteronism: Factors associated with normalization of blood pressure after surgery. Ann Intern Med 135: 258‐261, 2001.
 323. Schambelan ET , Sebastian A , Rector FC Jr . Mineralocorticoid‐resistant renal hyperkalemia without salt wasting (type II pseudohypoaldosteronism): Role of increased renal chloride reabsorption. Kidney Int 19: 16‐27, 1981.
 324. Schild L , Canessa CM , Shimkets RA , Gautschi I , Lifton RP , Rossier BC . A mutation in the epithelial sodium channel causing Liddle disease increases channel activity in the Xenopus laevis oocyte expression system. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 92: 5699‐5703, 1995.
 325. Schroeder ET , Anderson GH , Goldman SH , Streeten DHP . Effect of blockade of angiotensin II on blood pressure, renin and aldosterone in cirrhosis. Kidney Int 9: 511‐519, 1976.
 326. Schwartz GL , Turner ST . Screening for primary aldosteronism in essential hypertension: Diagnostic accuracy of the ratio of plasma aldosterone concentration to plasma renin activity. Clin Chem 51: 386‐394, 2005.
 327. Scoggins BA , Oddie CJ , Hare WCS , Coughlin JP . Preoperative lateralization of aldosterone‐producing tumours in primary aldosteronism. Ann Intern Med 76: 891‐897, 1972.
 328. Seccia TM , Mantero F , Letizia C , Kuppusamy M , Caroccia B , Barisa M , Verena Cicala M , Miotto D , Rossi GP . Somatic mutations in the KCNJ5 gene raise the lateralization index: Implications for the diagnosis of primary aldosteronism by adrenal vein sampling. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97: E2307‐E2313, 2012.
 329. Sechi LA , Novello M , Lapenna R , Baroselli S , Nadalini E , Colussi GL , Catena C . Long‐term renal outcome in patients with primary aldosteronism. JAMA 295: 2638‐2645, 2006.
 330. Sherman, RA , Ruddy MC . Suppression of aldosterone production by low‐dose heparin. Am J Nephrol 6: 165‐168, 1986.
 331. Shibata S , Zhang J , Puthumana J , Stone KL , Lifton RP . Kelch‐like 3 and Cullin 3 regulate electrolyte homeostasis via ubiquitination and degradation of WNK4. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110: 7838‐7843, 2013.
 332. Shigematsu Y , Hamada M , Okayama H , Hara Y , Hayashi Y , Kodama K , Kohara K , Hiwada K . Left ventricular hypertrophy precedes other target‐organ damage in primary aldosteronism. Hypertension 29: 723‐727, 1997.
 333. Shigematsu K , Yamaguchi N , Nakagaki T , Sakai H . A case of unilateral adrenal hyperplasia being difficult to distinguish from aldosterone‐producing adenoma. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 117: 124‐128, 2009.
 334. Shimkets RA , Warnock DG , Bositis CM , Nelson‐Williams C , Hansson JH , Schambelan M , Gill JR Jr , Ulick S , Milora RV , Findling JW , Canessa CM , Rossier BC , Lifton RP . Liddle's syndrome: Heritable human hypertension caused by mutations in the β subunit of the epithelial sodium channel. Cell 79: 407‐414, 1994.
 335. Silvestre J‐S , Heymes C , Oubenaissa A , Robert V , Aupetit‐Faisant B , Carayon A , Swynghedauw B , Delcayre C . Activation of cardiac aldosterone production in rat myocardial infarction: Effect of angiotensin II receptor blockade and role in cardiac fibrosis. Circulation 99: 2694‐2701, 1999.
 336. Simpson SA , Tait JF , Bush IE . Secretion of salt retaining hormone by mammalian adrenal cortex. Lancet 2: 226‐228, 1952.
 337. Soro A , Ingram MC , Tonolo G , Glorioso N , Fraser R . Evidence of coexisting changes in 11 beta‐hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase and 5 beta‐reductase activity in subjects with untreated essential hypertension. Hypertension 25: 67‐70, 1995.
 338. Spat A , Hunyady L . Control of aldosterone secretion: A model for convergence in cellular signaling pathways. Physiol Rev 84: 489‐539, 2004.
 339. Spath M , Korovkin S , Antke C , Anlauf M , Willenberg HS . Aldosterone‐ and cortisol‐co‐secreting adrenal tumors: The lost subtype of primary aldosteronism. Eur J Endocrinol 164: 447‐455, 2011.
 340. Speiser PW , Stoner E , New MI . Pseudohypoaldosteronism: A review and report of two new cases. Adv Exp Med Biol 196: 173‐195, 1986.
 341. Squires JP , Ulbright TM , DeSchryver‐Kecskemeti K , Engleman W . Juxtaglomerular cell tumor of the kidney. Cancer 53: 516‐523, 1984.
 342. Stewart PM . Is subclinical Cushing's syndrome an entity or a statistical fallout from diagnostic testing? Consensus surrounding the diagnosis is required before optimal treatment can be defined. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95: 2618‐2620, 2010.
 343. Stewart PM , Corrie JET , Shackleton CHL , Edwards CRW . Syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. J Clin Invest 82: 340‐349, 1988.
 344. Stewart PM , Valentino R , Wallace AM , Burt D , Shackleton CHL , Edwards CRW . Mineralocorticoid activity of liquorice: 11‐beta‐hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency comes of age. Lancet 330: 821‐824, 1987.
 345. Stewart PM , Walker BR , Holder G , O'Halloran D , Shackleton CHL . 11β‐hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity in Cushing's syndrome: Explaining the mineralocorticoid excess state of the ectopic adrenocorticotropin syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80: 3617‐3620, 1995.
 346. Stewart PM , Wallace AM , Atherden SM , Shearing CH , Edwards CRW . Mineralocorticoid activity of carbenoxolone: Contrasting effects of carbenoxolone and liquorice on 11β‐hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity in man. Clin Sci 78: 49‐54, 1990.
 347. Stowasser M . Primary aldosteronism: Rare bird or common cause of secondary hypertension? Curr Hypertens Reports 3: 230‐239, 2001.
 348. Stowasser M . Update in primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94: 3623‐3630, 2009.
 349. Stowasser M , Bachmann AW , Huggard PR , Rossetti TR , Gordon RD . Treatment of familial hyperaldosteronism type 1: Only partial suppression of adrenocorticotropin required to correct hypertension. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85: 3313‐3318, 2000.
 350. Stowasser M , Gordon RD . Familial hyperaldosteronism. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 78: 215‐229, 2001.
 351. Stowasser M , Gordon RD . Primary aldosteronism: From genesis to genetics. Trends Endocrinol Metab 14: 310‐317, 2003.
 352. Stowasser M , Gordon RD . Primary aldosteronism‐careful investigation is essential and rewarding. Mol Cell Endocrinol 217: 33‐39, 2004.
 353. Stowasser M , Gordon RD , Tunny TJ , Klemm SA , Finn WL , Krek AL . Familial hyperaldosteronism type II: Five families with a new variety of primary aldosteronism. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 19: 319‐322, 1992.
 354. Stowasser M , Gunasekera TG , Gordon RD . Familial varieties of primary aldosteronism. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 28: 1087‐1090, 2001.
 355. Stowasser M , Huggard PR , Rossetti TR , Bachmann AW , Gordon RD . Biochemical evidence of aldosterone overproduction and abnormal regulation in normotensive individuals with familial hyperaldosteronism type 1. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84: 4031‐4036, 1999.
 356. Stowasser M , Pimenta E , Gordon RD . Familial or genetic primary aldosteronism and Gordon syndrome. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Amer 40: 343‐368, 2011.
 357. Stowasser M , Sharman J , Leano R , Gordon RD , Ward G , Cowley D , Marwick TH . Evidence for abnormal left ventricular structure and function in normotensive individuals with familial hyperaldosteronism type I. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90: 5070‐5076, 2005.
 358. Strautnieks SS , Thompson RJ , Gardiner RM , Chung E . A novel splice‐site mutation in the gamma subunit of the epithelial sodium channel gene in three pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1 families. Nature Genet 13: 248‐250, 1996.
 359. Streeten DHP , Tomycz N , Anderson GH Jr . Reliability of screening methods for the diagnosis of primary aldosteronism. Am J Med 67: 403‐413, 1979.
 360. Sukor N , Gordon RD , Ku YK , Jones M , Stowasser M . Role of unilateral adrenalectomy in bilateral primary aldosteronism: A 22‐year single center experience. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94: 2437‐2445, 2009.
 361. Sukor N , Kogovsek C , Gordon RD , Robson D , Stowasser M . Improved quality of life, blood pressure, and biochemical status following laparoscopic adrenalectomy for unilateral primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95: 1360‐1364, 2010.
 362. Sutherland DJ , Ruse JL , Laidlaw JC . Hypertension, increased aldosterone secretion and low plasma renin activity relieved by dexamethasone. Can Med Assoc J 95: 1109‐1119, 1966.
 363. Swales JD . Primary aldosteronism: How hard should we look? BMJ 287: 702‐703, 1983.
 364. Taddei S , Virdis A , Mattei P , Salvetti A . Vasodilation to acetylcholine in primary and secondary forms of human hypertension. Hypertension 21: 929‐933, 1993.
 365. Taguchi R , Yamada M , Nakajima Y , Satoh T , Hashimoto K , Shibusawa N , Ozawa A , Okada S , Rokutanda N , Takata D , Koibuchi Y , Horiguchi J , Oyama T , Takeyoshi I , Mori M . Expression and mutations of KCNJ5 mRNA in Japanese patients with aldosterone‐producing adenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97: 1311‐1319, 2012.
 366. Take C , Ikeda K , Kurasawa T , Kurokawa K . Increased chloride resorption as an inherited renal tubular defect in familial type II pseudohypoaldosteronism. N Engl J Med 324: 472‐476, 1991.
 367. Takeda R , Matsubara T , Miyamori I , Hatekeyama H , Morise T . Vascular complications in patients with aldosterone producing adenoma in Japan: Comparison study with primary hypertension. J Endocrinol Invest 18: 370‐373, 1995.
 368. Takeda Y , Miyamori I , Iki K , Inaba S , Furukawa K , Hatakeyama H , Yoneda T , Takeda R . Endogenous renal 11 beta‐hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase inhibitory factors in patients with low‐renin essential hypertension. Hypertension 27: 197‐201, 1996.
 369. Takeda Y , Miyamori I , Inaba S , Furukawa K , Hatakeyama H , Yoneda T , Mabachi H , Takeda R . Vascular aldosterone in genetically hypertensive rats. Hypertension 29: 45‐48, 1997.
 370. Takeuchi K , Abe K , Sato M , Yasujima M , Omata K , Murakami O , Yoshinaga K . Plasma aldosterone level in a female case of pseudoaldosteronism (Liddle's Syndrome). Endocrinol Japonica 36: 167‐173, 1989.
 371. Tan YY , Ogilvie JB , Triponez F , Caron NR , Kebebrew EK , Clark OH , Duh QY . Selective use of adrenal venous sampling in the lateralization of aldosterone‐producing adenomas. World J Surg 30: 879‐885, 2006.
 372. Tanabe A , Naruse M , Naruse K , Hase M , Yoshimoto T , Tanaka M , Seki T , Demura R , Demura H . Left ventricular hypertrophy is more prominent in patients with primary aldosteronism than in patients with other types of secondary hypertension. Hypertension Res 20: 85‐90, 1997.
 373. Tanabe A , Naruse M , Takagi S , Tsuchiya K , Imaki T , Takano K . Variability in the renin/aldosterone profile under random and standardized sampling conditions in primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88: 2489‐2494, 2003.
 374. Taymans SE , Pack S , Pak E , Torpy DJ , Zhuang Z , Stratakis CA . Human CYP11B2 (aldosterone synthase) maps to chromosome 8q23.3. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83: 1033‐1036, 1998.
 375. Textor SC , Bravo EL , Fouad FM , Tarazi RC . Hyperkalemia in azotemic patients during angiotensin‐converting enzyme inhibition and aldosterone reduction with captopril. Am J Med 73: 719‐725, 1982.
 376. Tiu S‐C , Choi C‐H , Shek C‐C , Ng Y‐W , Chan FKW , Ng C‐M , Kong APS . The use of aldosterone‐renin ratio as a diagnostic test for primary hyperaldosteronism and its test characteristics under different conditions of blood sampling. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90: 72‐78, 2005.
 377. Todesco S , Terribile V , Borsatti A , Mantero F . Primary aldosteronism due to a malignant ovarian tumor. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 41: 809‐819, 1975.
 378. Toffelmire EB , Slater K , Corvol P , Menard J , Schambelan M . Response of plasma prorenin and active renin to chronic and acute alterations of renin secretion in normal humans. Studies using a direct immunoradiometric assay. J Clin Invest 83: 679‐687, 1989.
 379. Tomaschitz A , Pilz S , Ritz E , Obermayer‐Pietsch B , Pieber TR . Aldosterone and arterial hypertension. Nature Rev Endocrinol 6: 83‐93, 2010.
 380. Toniato A , Bernante P , Rossi GP , Piotto A , Pelizzo MR . Laparoscopic versus open adrenalectomy: Outcome in 35 consecutive patients. Int J Surgical Invest 1: 503‐507, 2000.
 381. Trerotola SO , Smoger DL , Cohen DL , Fraker DL . The inferior accessory hepatic vein: An anatomic landmark in adrenal vein sampling. J Vasc Interv Radiol 9: 1306‐1311, 2011.
 382. Tsagarakis S , Vassiliadi D , Thalassinos N . Endogenous subclinical hypercortisolism: Diagnostic uncertainties and clinical implications. J Endocrinol Invest 29: 471‐482, 2006.
 383. Tucker RM , Labarthe RD . Frequency of surgical treatment for hypertension in adults at the Mayo Clinic from 1973 through 1975. Mayo Clin Proc 52: 549‐545, 1977.
 384. Tunny TJ , Klemm SA , Gordon RD . Some aldosterone‐producing adrenal tumours also secrete cortisol, but present clinically as primary aldosteronism. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 17: 167‐171, 1990.
 385. Uehara Y , Sasaguri, M , Kinoshita A , Tsuji E , Kiyose H , Tanaguchi H , Noda K , Ideishi M , Inoue J , Tomita K , Arakawa K . Genetic analysis of the epithelial sodium channel in Liddle's syndrome. J Hypertension 16: 1131‐1135, 1998.
 386. Ulick S , Blumenfeld JD , Atlas SA , Wang JZ , Vaughan ED Jr . The unique steroidogenesis of the aldosteronoma in the differential diagnosis of primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 76: 873‐878, 1992.
 387. Ulick S , Chan CK , Gill JR Jr , Gutkin M , Letcher L , Mantero F , New MI . Defective fasciculata zone function as the mechanism of glucocorticoid‐remediable aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 71: 1151‐1157, 1990.
 388. Ulick S , Chu MD . Hypersecretion of new corticosteroid, 18‐hydroxycortisol in two types of adrenocortical hypertension. Clin Exp Hypertension 4: 1771‐1777, 1982.
 389. Ulick S , Wang JZ , Blumenfeld JD , Pickering TG . Cortisol inactivation overload: A mechanism of mineralocorticoid hypertension in the ectopic adrenocorticotropin syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 74: 963‐967, 1992.
 390. Umpierrez GE , Cantey P , Smiley D , Palacio A , Temponi D , Luster K , Chapman A . Primary aldosteronism in diabetic subjects with resistant hypertension. Diabetes Care 30: 1699‐1703, 2007.
 391. Valloton MB , Rossier MF , Capponi AM . Potassium‐angiotensin interplay in the regulation of aldosterone biosynthesis. Clin Endocrinol (Oxford) 42: 111‐119, 1995.
 392. Van Buchem FSP , Dooresbos M , Ellings HS . Primary aldosteronism due to adrenocortical hyperplasia. Lancet 2: 335, 1956.
 393. Vasan RS , Evans JC , Larson MG , Wilson PWF , Meigs JB , Rifai N , Benjamin EJ , Levy D . Serum aldosterone and the incidence of hypertension in nonhypertensive persons. N Engl J Med 352: 33‐41, 2004.
 394. Verrey F . Early aldosterone action: Toward filling the gap between transcription and transport. Am J Physiol 277: F319‐F327, 1999.
 395. Wagner C , Jensen BL , Kramer BK , Kurtz A . Control of the renal renin system by local factors. Kidney Int. 54 (Suppl. 67): 78‐83, 1998.
 396. Walker BR , Campbell JC , Fraser R , Stewart PM , Edwards CRW . Mineralocorticoid excess and inhibition of 11β‐hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in patients with ectopic ACTH syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxford) 37: 483‐492, 1992.
 397. Wang C , Chan TK , Yeung RTT , Coghlan JP , Scoggins BA , Stockigt JR . The effect of triamterene and sodium intake on renin, aldosterone, and erythrocyte sodium transport in Lidde's syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 52: 1027‐1032, 1981.
 398. Wang X‐Y , Masilamani S , Nielsen J , Kwon T‐H , Brooks HL , Nielsen S , Knepper MA . The renal thiazide‐sensitive Na‐Cl cotransporter as mediator of the aldosterone‐ escape phenomenon. J Clin Invest 108: 215‐222, 2001.
 399. Weinberger MH , Fineberg NS . The diagnosis of primary aldosteronism and separation of two major subtypes. Arch Intern Med 153: 2125‐2129, 1993.
 400. Weinberger MH , Kramer NJ , Grim CE , Petersen LP . The effect of posture and saline loading on plasma renin activity and aldosterone concentration in pregnant, non‐pregnant and estrogen‐treated women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 44: 69‐77, 1977.
 401. Weinberger MH , Roniker B , Krause SL , Weiss RJ . Eplerenone, a selective aldosterone blocker, in mild‐to‐moderate hypertension. Am J Hypertension 15: 709‐716, 2002.
 402. White EA , Schambelan M , Rost CR , Biglieri EG , Moss AA , Korobkin M . Use of computerized tomography in diagnosing the cause of primary aldosteronism. N Engl J Med 303: 1503‐1507, 1980.
 403. White PC . Disorders of aldosterone biosynthesis and action. N Engl J Med 331: 250‐258, 1994.
 404. White PC , Curnow KM , Pascoe L . Disorders of steroid 11β‐hydroxylase isoenzymes. Endocr Rev 15: 421‐438, 1994.
 405. White PC , Dupont J , New MI , Leiberman E , Hochberg Z , Rosier A . A mutation in CYP11B1 (Arg‐448→His) associated with steroid 11β‐hydroxylase deficiency in Jews of Moroccan origin. J Clin Invest 87: 1664‐1667, 1991.
 406. White PC , Mune T , Agarwal AK . 11‐Beta‐hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase and the syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. Endocr Rev 18: 135‐156, 1997.
 407. Whorwood CB , Sheppard MC , Stewart PM . Licorice inhibits 11beta‐hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase messenger ribonucleic acid levels and potentiates glucocorticoid hormone action. Endocrinology 132: 2287‐2292, 1993.
 408. Wilkes BM , Mento PF , Pearl AR , Hollander AM , Mossey RT , Bellucci A , Bluestone PA , Mailloux LU . Plasma angiotensins in anephric humans: Evidence for an extrarenal angiotensin system. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 17: 419, 1991.
 409. Williams GH , Cain JP , Dluhy RG , Underwood RH . Studies of the control of plasma aldosterone concentration in normal man. I. Response to posture, acute and chronic volume depletion, and sodium loading. J Clin Invest 51: 1731‐1742, 1972.
 410. Williams JS , Williams GH . 50th anniversary of aldosterone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88: 2364‐2372, 2003.
 411. Wilson RC , Dave‐Sharma S , Wei J‐Q , Obeyesekere VR , Li K , Ferrari P , Krozowski ZS , Shackleton CHL , Bradlow L , Wiens T , New MI . A genetic defect resulting in mild low‐renin hypertension. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95: 10200‐10205, 1998.
 412. Wilson RC , Nimkarn S , New MI . Apparent mineralocorticoid excess. Trends Endocrinol Metab 12: 104‐111, 2001.
 413. Wolf, RL , Mendlowitz M , Roboz J , Styan GPH , Kornfeld P , Weigl A . Treatment of hypertension with spironolactone. JAMA 198: 121‐127, 1966.
 414. World Health Organization. World Health Report 2002: Reducing risks, promoting healthy life. Geneva, Switzerland, 2002.
 415. Wu VC , Chueh SC , Chang HW , Lin WC , Liu KL , Li HY , Lin YH , Wu KD , Hsieh BC . Bilateral aldosterone‐producing adenomas: Differentiation from bilateral adrenal hyperplasia. Q J Med 101: 13‐22, 2008.
 416. Yamaguchi S , Mitsui S , Yan L , Yagita K , Miyake S , Okamura H . Role of DBP in the circadian oscillatory mechanism. Mol Cell Biol 20: 4773‐4781, 2000.
 417. Yamashita Y , Koga M , Takeda Y , Enomoto N , Uchida S , Hashimoto K , Yamano S , Dohi K , Marumo F , Sasaki S . Two sporadic cases of Liddle's syndrome caused by de novo ENaC mutations. Am J Kidney Dis 37: 499‐504, 2001.
 418. Yokota N , Bruneau BG , Kuroski de Bold ML , de Bold AJ . Atrial natriuretic factor significantly contributes to the mineralocorticoid escape phenomenon. Evidence for a guanylate cyclase‐mediated pathway. J Clin Invest 94: 1938‐1946, 1994.
 419. Yoneda T , Demura M , Takata H , Kometani M , Karashima S , Yamagishi M , Takeda Y . Unilateral primary aldosteronism with spontaneous remission after long‐term spironolactone therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97: 1109‐1113, 2012.
 420. Young WF Jr . Primary aldosteronism: Update on diagnosis and treatment. Endocrinologist 7: 213‐221, 1997.
 421. Young WF Jr . Minireview: Primary aldosteronism‐changing concepts in diagnosis and treatment. Endocrinology 144: 2208‐2213, 2003.
 422. Young WF Jr . Clinical practice: The incidentally discovered adrenal mass. N Engl J Med 356: 601‐610, 2007.
 423. Young WF Jr . Primary aldosteronism: Renaissance of a syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxford) 66: 607‐618, 2007.
 424. Young WF Jr , Klee GG . Primary aldosteronism. Diagnostic evaluation. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Amer 17: 367‐395, 1988.
 425. Young WF Jr , Stanson AW , Thompson GB , Grant CS , Farley DR , van Heerden JA . Role for adrenal vein sampling in primary aldosteronism. Surgery 136: 1227‐1235, 2004.
 426. Young WF , Stanson AW . What are the keys to successful adrenal venous sampling (AVS) in patients with primary aldosteronism? Clin Endocrinol (Oxford) 70: 14‐17, 2009.
 427. Zachmann M , Tassinari D , Prader A . Clinical and biochemical variability of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 11 beta‐hydroxylase deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 56: 222‐229, 1983.
 428. Zarneger R , Young WF Jr , Lee J , Sweet MP , Kebebrew E , Farley DR , Thompson GB , Grant CS , Clark OH , Duh Q‐Y . The aldosteronoma resolution score. Predicting complete resolution of hypertension after adrenalectomy for aldosteronoma. Ann Surg 247: 511‐518, 2008.
 429. Zeiger MA , Thompson GB , Duh Q‐Y , Hamrahian AH , Angelos P , Elaraj D , Fishman E , Kharlip J . American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American Association of Endocrine Surgeons Medical Guidelines for the Management of Adrenal Incidentalomas. Endocrine Practice. 15 (Suppl. 1): 1‐20, 2009.
 430. Zennaro M‐C , Hubert E‐L , Fernandes‐Rosa FL . Aldosterone resistance: Structural and functional considerations and new perspectives. Mol Cell Endocrinol 350: 206, 2012.
 431. Zennaro M‐C , Lombes M . Mineralocorticoid resistance. Trends Endocrinol Metab 15: 264‐270, 2004.
 432. Zillich AJ , Carter BL . Eplerenone‐a novel selective aldosterone blocker. Ann Pharmacol 2002: 1567‐1576, 2002.
 433. Zipser RD , Speckart PF . “Normotensive” primary aldosteronism. Ann Intern Med 88: 655‐656, 1978.

Related Articles:

Systemic Hypertension

Contact Editor

Submit a note to the editor about this article by filling in the form below.

* Required Field

How to Cite

Steven B. Magill. Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Mineralocorticoid Disorders. Compr Physiol 2014, 4: 1083-1119. doi: 10.1002/cphy.c130042