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Principles in the Organization of Invertebrate Sensory Systems

C. A. G. Wiersma, Joan L. M. Roach

10.1002/cphy.cp010128

Source: Supplement 1: Handbook of Physiology, The Nervous System, Cellular Biology of Neurons

Originally published: 1977

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Classification of Interneurons
2 Integration in the Absence of Interneurons
3 Thermoreception and Chemoreception
4 Mechanoreception
4.1 Arthropods
4.2 Annelids
4.3 Molluscs
4.4 Interneurons of Axial Nerve Cord Responsive to Touch in Octopus Arm Arranged According to Field Size
4.5 Gravity Reception
4.6 Summary of Mechanoreceptor Mechanisms
5 Vibration Sense and Hearing
5.1 Acrididae
5.2 Tettigoniidae and Gryllidae
5.3 Lepidoptera
5.4 Summary of Vibration Sense and Hearing
6 Photoreception
6.1 Molluscs
6.2 Arthropods
7 Vision
7.1 Crustacean Compound Eyes
7.2 Insect Compound Eyes
8 General Conclusions
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Innervation of mantle of an octopod. CNS, circumesophageal ganglia; e.CNS, efferent from CNS; m.c, mantle connective; m.n., motor neuron; mus., mantle muscles; n. musc., nerves to mantle muscles; r.n., receptor neuron; st.g., stellate ganglion; st.n., stellar nerve. Presynaptic terminals are indicated by •. Cell bodies of neurons on motor side are shaded; cell bodies of receptor neurons are unshaded.

From Gray 125
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Ventral aspect of a segmental ganglion of a leech. Three cells on each side labeled T are touch sensory cells, each of which responds to light touch applied to a discrete area of the ipsilateral skin. The two P cells respond to pressure and the two N cells to noxious stimuli.

From Baylor & Nicholls 34
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Three possible types (A‐C) of neural connections that would result in firing of a single interneuron when sensory areas of three separate segments were stimulated. Primary sensory fibers (‐‐‐); cell bodies, whose locations are unknown, of interneurons (····); interneurons (——); synapses in which several presynaptic fibers converge on a single postsynaptic fiber (—>—); a synapse between only two fibers (—<>—). It is now known, but not shown, that in C the primary fibers entering a posterior ganglion run forward and make synapses also in at least the two anterior ganglia with the same interneuron.

From Hughes & Wiersma 166
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Responses recorded in crayfish by suction electrode from an interneuron in sixth ganglion (upper traces); unitary excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP's) can be associated with impulses in primary fibers of the fourth root of the sixth ganglion, shown in both middle (proximal electrode) and lower (distal electrode) traces. Relative locations of hairs in anterior middle of left half of anterior telson segment are indicated by circles: strong input to the interneuron, • weak input, •; no input, ○. Considerable differences are present in this distribution between animals.

From Kennedy 191
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Schematic circuit of elements and connections concerned with generating rapid tail flexion to phasic mechanical abdominal disturbances in crayfish. Single neurons, ○ populations of similar neurons, □ chemical junctions, ○ electrical junctions, ——⊣ (the one to the motor giant is rectifying). Multi‐segmental interneurons are interconnected (——) and are excited by some unisegmental interneurons. Separate pathways generating the α and β components of the lateral giant response are indicated. TR, tactile receptors; A, B, C, identified tactile interneurons; LG, lateral giant; MoG, motor giant; FFMN, fast flexor motor neurons. Fast flexor musculature is drawn on the right.

From Zucker 421
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Effect of “awakening” on a multimodal interneuron of commissure C‐120 in crayfish. Small and large dots indicate mechanical and visual stimuli, respectively. Note that this interneuron changes its reactivity proportionally for both its modalities. A, animal in sleeping position; B, animal awakened by stimuli; C, animal in return to quiet state. Integrated polygraph record; each horizontal line represents 20 s, vertical lines are logarithmically proportional to log of number of impulses per second.

From Aréchiga & Wiersma 9
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Interneurons that have evolved as giant fibers in a wide range of worms, usually acting as fast pathways in general shortening of the body. The only limitation placed on the structure is that it be adequate. Even at this level there is no one‐to‐one relationship between structure and response. 1 and 2, Euthalenessa; 3, Sigalion; 4, Lepidasthenia and Euthalenessa; 5 and 6, Lumbricus; 7, Euthalenessa; 8, Eunice; 9 and 10, Nereis and Neanthes; 11 and 12, Arenicola; 13, Nereis and Neanthes; 14 and 15, Halla and Aglaurides; 16, Mastobranchus; 17, Sabella and Spirographis 18, Myxicola.

From Horridge 151, after Nicol 265, with permission of W. H. Freeman & Co. Copyright © 1968
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Anatomy of left tympanal organ of the locust. [After Gray 124.] Letters a‐d indicate position of the 4 groups of receptor cells. Arrows indicate direction of dendrites.

From Michelsen 242
Figure 9. Figure 9.

Threshold curves for the 4 groups of receptor cells in isolated locust ear. Variations in threshold curves for different cells within each group (—).

From Michelsen 242
Figure 10. Figure 10.

Schematic representation of sensory nerve tracts synapsing on G interneuron (G‐neuron) of Locusta. Tympanal nerve fibers (+ + + + +); ipsilateral interneuron (——); ipsilateral interneuron running in contralateral connective (− − − −); contralateral interneuron (−·−·−·−·). Th2 and Th3, meta‐ and mesothoracic ganglia, respectively.

From Kalmring et al. 184
Figure 11. Figure 11.

Changes in the locust in response area of a central auditory neuron induced by cutting of peripheral sensory nerves. A, before cutting; B, after cutting the first abdominal segmental nerves; C, after cutting also the mesothoracic peripheral auditory nerves. Curve C has lost characteristic sharp rise of threshold for low pitches; it is similar to response area of a tympanic nerve.

From Yanagisawa et al. 413
Figure 12. Figure 12.

Modified chordotonal organs at proximal end of right prothoracic tibia of Decticus verrucivorus (Tettigoniidae), anterior to the right. al, Anterior ligament; atr. anterior trachea; cc, cap cells; ccc, crista cap cells each containing a stift (stiff rod); cri, crista; crn, crista nerve; crsn, sensory neurons of crista; io, intermediate organ; iocc, cap cells of intermediate organ; ion, nerve of intermediate organ; iosn and iost, sensory neurons and stifts of intermediate organ; itc, inner wall of tympanal cavity; lgr, lateral groove; otc, folded outer wall of tympanal cavity; pl, posterior ligament; ps, posterior supporting structure; ptr, posterior trachea; sn, SN1–3, subgenual nerve; SO, subgenual organ; soi, insertion of subgenual organ; sost, stifts of subgenual organ; t, typanum; tc, tympanal cavity; tn, tympanal nerve; tp, terminal pegs; Tr, trachea; tsn, branch of the tympanal nerve that supplies the subgenual organ; vMW, anterior support of the crista.

From Bullock & Horridge 52, adapted from Schwabe 331, with permission of W. H. Freeman & Co. Copyright © 1965
Figure 13. Figure 13.

Comparison of the chirp‐coding neuron (A) and the pulse‐coding neuron (B) in a female cricket.

From Stout & Huber 344
Figure 14. Figure 14.

Dorsal view of denuded head of Celerio lineata. Left labial palp (l pa) has been deflected laterally to expose distal lobe of left pilifer (pi). Right labial palp (r pa) is in its fully adducted position and has been transected obliquely at level of distal lobe to show region of apposition between distal lobe and medial wall of second palpal segment. Extensive air sac enclosed by thin walls of the palp is traversed by nerves and blood channels sheathed in tracheal epithelium. Compound eyes (e), antennae (a), and base of the proboscis (pr) are shown as points of reference. Scale, 1 mm.

From Roeder et al. 311. Copyright 1970 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Figure 15. Figure 15.

Frontal section of the left tympanic air sac and associated structures of ear of noctuid moth. BAx, axon of the B cell; B, Bügel; CTM, countertympanic membrane; TAS, tympanic air sac; TM, tympanic membrane; S, scoloparium with A cells; L, ligament; EPID, epidermis; TR EPITH, tracheal epithelium. Solid black lines, skeletal supports.

From Lechtenberg 214, adapted from Treat & Roeder 367
Figure 16. Figure 16.

Inhibitory connection of 5 photoreceptors of Hermissenda. Interactions between A cells are weak and not shown.

From Alkon & Fuortes 7
Figure 17. Figure 17.

Neuronal and synaptic organization within eye of sea hare. Pr, electrical synapses blocked by propionate; La, Mg, chemical synapses blocked by high magnesium‐low calcium or lanthanum ions.

From Strumwasser 347, adapted from Audesirk 15
Figure 18. Figure 18.

Right distal eyestalk segment and outer end of proximal segment, showing relationship of recording electrode to sense organ and information processing centers distal to optic nerve, which contains both afferent interneurons. On the basis of histological evidence for decapod crustaceans in general 27,133 the following neuronal connections have been suggested: 1, primary neurosensory axons; 2 and 3, afferent interneurons of external and internal chiasmata, respectively (note that in brachyuran crabs these are actually in perpendicular planes rather than in the same plane as diagrammed); 4, afferents from medulla interna to medulla terminalis; 5–7, afferents from medulla terminalis, medulla externa, and medulla interna, respectively, to protocerebrum; 8 and 9, efferent interneurons of external and internal chiasmata, respectively; 10–12, efferent interneurons from protocerebrum to medulla terminalis, medulla interna, and medulla externa, respectively. No attempt has been made to indicate the complex and poorly known neural centers and tracts within the 4 optic ganglia themselves.

From Waterman, Wiersma, and Bush 379, drawn by Shirley G. Hartman
Figure 19. Figure 19.

Visual excitatory fields of the 14 identified sustaining fibers of the crayfish Procambarus clarki are shown in black. Numbers are code designations.

From Wiersma & Yamaguchi 400
Figure 20. Figure 20.

Response magnitude in crayfish. A: response magnitude as a function of stimulus intensity for sustaining fiber phasic impulse frequency (Rmax = 275 impulses/s) and intracellularly recorded transient retinular cell depolarization (Rmax = 35 mV). Unit intensity = 10−3 cd/ft2. Stimulus diameter = 100 μm. B: response magnitude as a function of stimulus intensity 1 s after stimulus onset. Sustaining fiber frequency was determined for the interval between 0.9 and 1.1 s after stimulus onset.

From Glantz 119
Figure 21. Figure 21.

Inhibition of response and background discharge of a seeing fiber (LO 141) of rock lobster by single moving vertical black stripe as shown in A in comparison to B. A: Vertical 15° black stripe built up of five 15° square black targets. B: Mid‐height 15° black target, after removal of the two targets above and the two below it. Time base, 5 s; drum speed, 8°/s.

From Wiersma & York 404
Figure 22. Figure 22.

Schematic drawing of the brain tracts of the cockroach Periplaneta. A, antennal glomerulus; Cp, corpora pedunculata; K, circumesophageal connective; M, antennal motor nerve; S, antennal sensory nerve; I, lamina; II, medulla; III, lobula of optic lobes.

From Hanström 133
Figure 23. Figure 23.

Two binocular units recorded simultaneously in the hawk moth. Top unit in right ventral nerve cord, lower unit in right optic lobe. Both have clockwise preferred directions. Top: no stimulation. Middle: continuous stripe movement in preferred direction; speed of movement increases toward optimum from beginning to end of record. Bottom: continuation of middle record; movement stops at arrow. Calibration, 1 s. Spikes retouched.

From Collett 73
Figure 24. Figure 24.

Relationship of peaks of 7 major types of color fibers in Papilio troilus: wide‐band fibers above abscissa; narrow‐band fibers plotted downward from abscissa. Shading indicates portions of the spectrum that presumably elicit the greatest inhibitory interaction between the various wide‐band fibers. Note the similarity between these shaded areas and the peaks of the narrow‐band green‐white and orange fibers.

From Swihart 357
Figure 25. Figure 25.

“Physiological” model illustrating the postulated inputs to the various categories of visual interneurons; excitatory interacaction (+); inhibition (−). YLW, yellow; GRN, green.

From Swihart 358
Figure 26. Figure 26.

Three records of simultaneously recorded on‐off and sustaining units of flies correspond to different location of 1.5° stimulus spot (dark spots) and characterize receptive field organization of both units. Whereas the on‐off unit responds in a transient fashion (on‐off) regardless of the stimulus location within the receptive field, the sustaining unit responds with a maintained discharge upon stimulation of the on‐region and with a pure off‐discharge upon stimulation of either adjacent off‐region. In this case the receptive fields of both units were coincident and are schematically represented by the dashed (on‐off unit) and solid (sustaining unit) lines.

From Arnett 12. Copyright 1971 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Figure 27. Figure 27.

Comparison of basic responses to intensity, form, and motion of class Ia1 and class IIa1 units (Calliphora phaenicia). Curves are averages of 20 repeated stimuli for each pattern type. Firing rates are averaged over binwidth of 0.1 s for 4‐s display intervals and over 0.01 s for 0.2‐s interval.

From McCann & Dill 233


Figure 1.

Innervation of mantle of an octopod. CNS, circumesophageal ganglia; e.CNS, efferent from CNS; m.c, mantle connective; m.n., motor neuron; mus., mantle muscles; n. musc., nerves to mantle muscles; r.n., receptor neuron; st.g., stellate ganglion; st.n., stellar nerve. Presynaptic terminals are indicated by •. Cell bodies of neurons on motor side are shaded; cell bodies of receptor neurons are unshaded.

From Gray 125


Figure 2.

Ventral aspect of a segmental ganglion of a leech. Three cells on each side labeled T are touch sensory cells, each of which responds to light touch applied to a discrete area of the ipsilateral skin. The two P cells respond to pressure and the two N cells to noxious stimuli.

From Baylor & Nicholls 34


Figure 3.

Three possible types (A‐C) of neural connections that would result in firing of a single interneuron when sensory areas of three separate segments were stimulated. Primary sensory fibers (‐‐‐); cell bodies, whose locations are unknown, of interneurons (····); interneurons (——); synapses in which several presynaptic fibers converge on a single postsynaptic fiber (—>—); a synapse between only two fibers (—<>—). It is now known, but not shown, that in C the primary fibers entering a posterior ganglion run forward and make synapses also in at least the two anterior ganglia with the same interneuron.

From Hughes & Wiersma 166


Figure 4.

Responses recorded in crayfish by suction electrode from an interneuron in sixth ganglion (upper traces); unitary excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP's) can be associated with impulses in primary fibers of the fourth root of the sixth ganglion, shown in both middle (proximal electrode) and lower (distal electrode) traces. Relative locations of hairs in anterior middle of left half of anterior telson segment are indicated by circles: strong input to the interneuron, • weak input, •; no input, ○. Considerable differences are present in this distribution between animals.

From Kennedy 191


Figure 5.

Schematic circuit of elements and connections concerned with generating rapid tail flexion to phasic mechanical abdominal disturbances in crayfish. Single neurons, ○ populations of similar neurons, □ chemical junctions, ○ electrical junctions, ——⊣ (the one to the motor giant is rectifying). Multi‐segmental interneurons are interconnected (——) and are excited by some unisegmental interneurons. Separate pathways generating the α and β components of the lateral giant response are indicated. TR, tactile receptors; A, B, C, identified tactile interneurons; LG, lateral giant; MoG, motor giant; FFMN, fast flexor motor neurons. Fast flexor musculature is drawn on the right.

From Zucker 421


Figure 6.

Effect of “awakening” on a multimodal interneuron of commissure C‐120 in crayfish. Small and large dots indicate mechanical and visual stimuli, respectively. Note that this interneuron changes its reactivity proportionally for both its modalities. A, animal in sleeping position; B, animal awakened by stimuli; C, animal in return to quiet state. Integrated polygraph record; each horizontal line represents 20 s, vertical lines are logarithmically proportional to log of number of impulses per second.

From Aréchiga & Wiersma 9


Figure 7.

Interneurons that have evolved as giant fibers in a wide range of worms, usually acting as fast pathways in general shortening of the body. The only limitation placed on the structure is that it be adequate. Even at this level there is no one‐to‐one relationship between structure and response. 1 and 2, Euthalenessa; 3, Sigalion; 4, Lepidasthenia and Euthalenessa; 5 and 6, Lumbricus; 7, Euthalenessa; 8, Eunice; 9 and 10, Nereis and Neanthes; 11 and 12, Arenicola; 13, Nereis and Neanthes; 14 and 15, Halla and Aglaurides; 16, Mastobranchus; 17, Sabella and Spirographis 18, Myxicola.

From Horridge 151, after Nicol 265, with permission of W. H. Freeman & Co. Copyright © 1968


Figure 8.

Anatomy of left tympanal organ of the locust. [After Gray 124.] Letters a‐d indicate position of the 4 groups of receptor cells. Arrows indicate direction of dendrites.

From Michelsen 242


Figure 9.

Threshold curves for the 4 groups of receptor cells in isolated locust ear. Variations in threshold curves for different cells within each group (—).

From Michelsen 242


Figure 10.

Schematic representation of sensory nerve tracts synapsing on G interneuron (G‐neuron) of Locusta. Tympanal nerve fibers (+ + + + +); ipsilateral interneuron (——); ipsilateral interneuron running in contralateral connective (− − − −); contralateral interneuron (−·−·−·−·). Th2 and Th3, meta‐ and mesothoracic ganglia, respectively.

From Kalmring et al. 184


Figure 11.

Changes in the locust in response area of a central auditory neuron induced by cutting of peripheral sensory nerves. A, before cutting; B, after cutting the first abdominal segmental nerves; C, after cutting also the mesothoracic peripheral auditory nerves. Curve C has lost characteristic sharp rise of threshold for low pitches; it is similar to response area of a tympanic nerve.

From Yanagisawa et al. 413


Figure 12.

Modified chordotonal organs at proximal end of right prothoracic tibia of Decticus verrucivorus (Tettigoniidae), anterior to the right. al, Anterior ligament; atr. anterior trachea; cc, cap cells; ccc, crista cap cells each containing a stift (stiff rod); cri, crista; crn, crista nerve; crsn, sensory neurons of crista; io, intermediate organ; iocc, cap cells of intermediate organ; ion, nerve of intermediate organ; iosn and iost, sensory neurons and stifts of intermediate organ; itc, inner wall of tympanal cavity; lgr, lateral groove; otc, folded outer wall of tympanal cavity; pl, posterior ligament; ps, posterior supporting structure; ptr, posterior trachea; sn, SN1–3, subgenual nerve; SO, subgenual organ; soi, insertion of subgenual organ; sost, stifts of subgenual organ; t, typanum; tc, tympanal cavity; tn, tympanal nerve; tp, terminal pegs; Tr, trachea; tsn, branch of the tympanal nerve that supplies the subgenual organ; vMW, anterior support of the crista.

From Bullock & Horridge 52, adapted from Schwabe 331, with permission of W. H. Freeman & Co. Copyright © 1965


Figure 13.

Comparison of the chirp‐coding neuron (A) and the pulse‐coding neuron (B) in a female cricket.

From Stout & Huber 344


Figure 14.

Dorsal view of denuded head of Celerio lineata. Left labial palp (l pa) has been deflected laterally to expose distal lobe of left pilifer (pi). Right labial palp (r pa) is in its fully adducted position and has been transected obliquely at level of distal lobe to show region of apposition between distal lobe and medial wall of second palpal segment. Extensive air sac enclosed by thin walls of the palp is traversed by nerves and blood channels sheathed in tracheal epithelium. Compound eyes (e), antennae (a), and base of the proboscis (pr) are shown as points of reference. Scale, 1 mm.

From Roeder et al. 311. Copyright 1970 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science


Figure 15.

Frontal section of the left tympanic air sac and associated structures of ear of noctuid moth. BAx, axon of the B cell; B, Bügel; CTM, countertympanic membrane; TAS, tympanic air sac; TM, tympanic membrane; S, scoloparium with A cells; L, ligament; EPID, epidermis; TR EPITH, tracheal epithelium. Solid black lines, skeletal supports.

From Lechtenberg 214, adapted from Treat & Roeder 367


Figure 16.

Inhibitory connection of 5 photoreceptors of Hermissenda. Interactions between A cells are weak and not shown.

From Alkon & Fuortes 7


Figure 17.

Neuronal and synaptic organization within eye of sea hare. Pr, electrical synapses blocked by propionate; La, Mg, chemical synapses blocked by high magnesium‐low calcium or lanthanum ions.

From Strumwasser 347, adapted from Audesirk 15


Figure 18.

Right distal eyestalk segment and outer end of proximal segment, showing relationship of recording electrode to sense organ and information processing centers distal to optic nerve, which contains both afferent interneurons. On the basis of histological evidence for decapod crustaceans in general 27,133 the following neuronal connections have been suggested: 1, primary neurosensory axons; 2 and 3, afferent interneurons of external and internal chiasmata, respectively (note that in brachyuran crabs these are actually in perpendicular planes rather than in the same plane as diagrammed); 4, afferents from medulla interna to medulla terminalis; 5–7, afferents from medulla terminalis, medulla externa, and medulla interna, respectively, to protocerebrum; 8 and 9, efferent interneurons of external and internal chiasmata, respectively; 10–12, efferent interneurons from protocerebrum to medulla terminalis, medulla interna, and medulla externa, respectively. No attempt has been made to indicate the complex and poorly known neural centers and tracts within the 4 optic ganglia themselves.

From Waterman, Wiersma, and Bush 379, drawn by Shirley G. Hartman


Figure 19.

Visual excitatory fields of the 14 identified sustaining fibers of the crayfish Procambarus clarki are shown in black. Numbers are code designations.

From Wiersma & Yamaguchi 400


Figure 20.

Response magnitude in crayfish. A: response magnitude as a function of stimulus intensity for sustaining fiber phasic impulse frequency (Rmax = 275 impulses/s) and intracellularly recorded transient retinular cell depolarization (Rmax = 35 mV). Unit intensity = 10−3 cd/ft2. Stimulus diameter = 100 μm. B: response magnitude as a function of stimulus intensity 1 s after stimulus onset. Sustaining fiber frequency was determined for the interval between 0.9 and 1.1 s after stimulus onset.

From Glantz 119


Figure 21.

Inhibition of response and background discharge of a seeing fiber (LO 141) of rock lobster by single moving vertical black stripe as shown in A in comparison to B. A: Vertical 15° black stripe built up of five 15° square black targets. B: Mid‐height 15° black target, after removal of the two targets above and the two below it. Time base, 5 s; drum speed, 8°/s.

From Wiersma & York 404


Figure 22.

Schematic drawing of the brain tracts of the cockroach Periplaneta. A, antennal glomerulus; Cp, corpora pedunculata; K, circumesophageal connective; M, antennal motor nerve; S, antennal sensory nerve; I, lamina; II, medulla; III, lobula of optic lobes.

From Hanström 133


Figure 23.

Two binocular units recorded simultaneously in the hawk moth. Top unit in right ventral nerve cord, lower unit in right optic lobe. Both have clockwise preferred directions. Top: no stimulation. Middle: continuous stripe movement in preferred direction; speed of movement increases toward optimum from beginning to end of record. Bottom: continuation of middle record; movement stops at arrow. Calibration, 1 s. Spikes retouched.

From Collett 73


Figure 24.

Relationship of peaks of 7 major types of color fibers in Papilio troilus: wide‐band fibers above abscissa; narrow‐band fibers plotted downward from abscissa. Shading indicates portions of the spectrum that presumably elicit the greatest inhibitory interaction between the various wide‐band fibers. Note the similarity between these shaded areas and the peaks of the narrow‐band green‐white and orange fibers.

From Swihart 357


Figure 25.

“Physiological” model illustrating the postulated inputs to the various categories of visual interneurons; excitatory interacaction (+); inhibition (−). YLW, yellow; GRN, green.

From Swihart 358


Figure 26.

Three records of simultaneously recorded on‐off and sustaining units of flies correspond to different location of 1.5° stimulus spot (dark spots) and characterize receptive field organization of both units. Whereas the on‐off unit responds in a transient fashion (on‐off) regardless of the stimulus location within the receptive field, the sustaining unit responds with a maintained discharge upon stimulation of the on‐region and with a pure off‐discharge upon stimulation of either adjacent off‐region. In this case the receptive fields of both units were coincident and are schematically represented by the dashed (on‐off unit) and solid (sustaining unit) lines.

From Arnett 12. Copyright 1971 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science


Figure 27.

Comparison of basic responses to intensity, form, and motion of class Ia1 and class IIa1 units (Calliphora phaenicia). Curves are averages of 20 repeated stimuli for each pattern type. Firing rates are averaged over binwidth of 0.1 s for 4‐s display intervals and over 0.01 s for 0.2‐s interval.

From McCann & Dill 233
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Article Title: Principles in the Organization of Invertebrate Sensory Systems
 

How to Cite

C. A. G. Wiersma, Joan L. M. Roach. Principles in the Organization of Invertebrate Sensory Systems. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 1: Handbook of Physiology, The Nervous System, Cellular Biology of Neurons: 1089-1135. First published in print 1977. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp010128