Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library

Human Manual Control

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 A Simple Model for Voluntary Control
1.1 Working Memory and Internal Rehearsal
1.2 Coding of Words in Working Memory
1.3 Computer of Limited Capacity
1.4 Single‐Channel Input Selector
1.5 Long‐Term Memory and Automation of Skill
1.6 Summary
2 Bias from Transfer
2.1 Central Tendency Bias
2.2 Asymmetric Transfer Bias
2.3 Avoiding Transfer Bias
2.4 Summary
3 Measures of Error
3.1 Relationships Between Measures of Error
3.2 Measures of Error in Tracking
3.3 Summary
4 Preprogramming and Error Correction
4.1 Quick Ballistic Movements
4.2 Craik's Ratio Rule
4.3 Preprogrammed Movements With Error Correction
5 Nonvisual Memory for Single Movements
5.1 Weber's Law for Accuracy of Movements
5.2 Contraction Bias
5.3 Uncontrolled Differences in Sizes of Movements
5.4 Forgetting and Spatial Reference Points
5.5 Interpolated Motor Activity Between Criterion Movement and Reproduced Movement
5.6 Location Better Remembered Than Distance
5.7 Active and Passive Preselected and Constrained Movements
5.8 Visual Cues Take Priority Over Nonvisual Cues
5.9 Summary
6 Reaction Time for Correcting a Limb Movement
6.1 Deliberate and Automatic Corrections
6.2 Kinesthetic Reaction Time
6.3 Visual Correction of Quick Movements
6.4 Reaction Time for a Correction in Tracking Steps
6.5 Advance Correction of Direction
6.6 Corrected Anticipatory Response
6.7 Difficulties of Interpretation
6.8 Additional Artifacts in Measuring Reaction Times to Steps
6.9 Summary
7 Preparation and Time Sharing
7.1 Reaction Times for Multiple Choices
7.2 Grouped Responses to Simultaneous Stimuli
7.3 Psychological Refractory Period
7.4 Holding Strategy in Tracking Steps
7.5 Apparent Elimination of Psychological Refractory Period by Simultaneous Strategy
7.6 Probe Reaction Time and Psychological Refractory Period
7.7 Reaction Time to a Probe Presented During a Movement
7.8 Interference Between Movements of Two Limbs
7.9 Time Sharing Between Two Tasks
7.10 Tracking in Two Dimensions
7.11 Optimum Combinations of Two Unrelated Tasks
7.12 Summary
8 Prediction and Preprogramming Replace Error Correction in Complex Skills
8.1 Prediction of Speed in Pursuit Tracking
8.2 Preprogramming of Response Frequency in Pursuit Tracking
8.3 Models for Prediction
8.4 Prediction and Error Correction in Tracking With Pursuit and Compensatory Displays
8.5 Preprogramming With Control Systems of High Order
8.6 Preprogramming and Error Correction in Complex Skills
8.7 Summary
9 Tracking by Eye
10 Overview
Figure 1. Figure 1.

A simple model for deliberate or voluntary control, showing the main limitations of the brain. The model was produced for a lecture in 1963. The general layout follows Broadbent's model (p. 299 in ref. 19), but most boxes are labeled differently. Broadbent's labels correspond to his theories at that time, which are now largely outdated. The flow of information from receptors through central mechanisms to effectors follows Welford 156. The use of boxes to represent functions comes from electrical engineering 17. The internal rehearsal loop appears to have been an innovation in 1963.

From Poulton 116
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Latin square and AB‐BA within‐subjects designs of the kind generally used in experiments with people. For the complete 4 × 4 latin square, A, B, C., and D represent 4 experimental conditions. Columns show order in which conditions are performed by the 4 people represented by rows. Each person performs every condition, and each condition is presented once in every serial position. For the 2 × 2 AB‐BA design enclosed by the dashed lines, there are only 2 conditions, 2 orders, and 2 people or groups of people.

Figure 3. Figure 3.

Contraction bias in an experiment with 10 different sizes of step. Small steps are overshot on the average; large steps are undershot. Average constant error, CE, is smallest for steps in the middle of the range.

From Poulton 119; data from Slack 141
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Asymmetric transfer between pursuit and compensatory tracking. Before transfer (left) filled points for pursuit tracking lie reliably below unfilled points for compensatory tracking. After transfer (right) filled diamonds for pursuit tracking lie a little below unfilled triangles for compensatory tracking, but the difference is not now reliable. Notice that on left before transfer, both groups that are to change conditions have smaller average errors than the corresponding control groups that are not to change conditions. This could be an “experimenter effect,” a direct influence of the experimenter on the people in different groups, which the experimenter may not realize 131. It can happen if the experimenter is less interested in control groups than in groups that change conditions.

From Poulton 119; data from Gordon 52
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Pursuit and compensatory displays. In tracking with a pursuit display, the person sees the track or input signal and also the output of his control or control system. He must match the two. In tracking with a compensatory display, the person sees only his error. Error is the difference between the track or input signal and the output of the person's control or control system. Compensatory tracking is the more difficult task. Block diagrams on right illustrate the way in which person and experimental equipment are connected. They do not indicate the nonlinear strategies that a person actually uses.

From Poulton 119
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Effect of response reference point, Rrp, on the theoretical stopping points of movements aimed at targets of various distances. The movements, labeled Resp for response, start at bottom and go vertically up page, as indicated by arrows. Thick vertical lines, labeled Stim for stimulus, show range of correct stopping points in arbitrary arithmetic units of distance. Sloping lines show average constant error, CE, or average algebraic error taking account of the sign. A: sloping lines reflect contraction bias. Width of distributions of stopping points illustrate Weber's law for the standard deviation of error, SD, or variable error. BD: slopes of the lines are determined by a response reference point, Rrp, represented by the diamond. The response reference points lie respectively just within, at end of, or just beyond the far end of the range of correct stopping points. Width of distribution of stopping points at far end of range is reduced by response reference point.

Figure 7. Figure 7.

Theoretical relation of the modulus mean error (average absolute error) to constant error (average algebraic error) when both measures are expressed as proportions of the standard deviation of the error (variable error). Relation is shown by solid line. It assumes a normal or Gaussian distribution of errors, as in the distributions of Pig. 6.

Figure 8. Figure 8.

Effect of starting position of a reproduced movement.

A: reproduced movement starts ahead of criterion movement. This produces a negative constant error in reproducing distance of criterion movement and a positive constant error in reproducing location of its stopping point. B: reproduced movement starts behind criterion movement. This produces a positive constant error in reproducing distance and a negative constant error in reproducing location of stopping point
Figure 9. Figure 9.

Theoretical reaction times (RTs) in tracking steps. Stimulus is a downward step at time 0 on abscissa. A correct response is an upward step of same size. After a response in wrong direction, function 2 illustrates a one‐choice visual reaction time; function 3 illustrates a one‐choice kinesthetic reaction time. Function 6 illustrates the psychological refractory period, Ψ, for the correction of an anticipatory response once the unexpected stimulus appears.

Figure 10. Figure 10.

A selected record of step tracking from the experiment of Trumbo et al. 151. Steps occur every 1.0 s, as indicated at top. Irregular steps start and end at a different one of the 6 positions, 0–5, indicated on ordinate. Thus times and directions of steps 1, 4, and 5 are certain. For predictable step 8, size is certain as well as time and direction.

From Poulton 119
Figure 11. Figure 11.

Theoretical functions for choice reaction times with different numbers of choices. Unfilled circles represent average reaction times after minimum practice. Filled points show how reaction times diminish after days of practice, especially when there are many choices. This produces less steep functions. If the same people practice all the conditions, average reaction time may eventually be the same for 8 choices as for only 2 choices. This is indicated by filled circles and solid line.

Figure 12. Figure 12.

Strategies used in experiments on psychological refractory period with 2 manual responses. Top 2 rows illustrate what a person does in a simple experiment before training. Stimuli S1 and S2 are separated by time interval I. Recorded starts, R1 and R2, of the 2 corresponding manual responses have reaction times RT1 and RT2. The r1 just before R1 in top row indicates time at which computer of Fig. 1 finishes dealing with S1 and R1. The RT2 in second row would normally equal RTn, but it is increased by psychological refractory period, which is indicated by horizontal dashed line. In row 3 computer takes longer to prepare for S2R2 pairs. This could be due to interference between S1R1 and S2R2 pairs, or to not expecting S2 so soon. In row 4 S1 is held until S2 occurs. A single complex response is then made to the two stimuli.

Figure 13. Figure 13.

Selected responses to pairs of steps in Vince's experiment 152. Thick line represents track that has to be followed. Thin line represents person's response. On the left of the figure the time interval between the 2 steps is 0.05 s, on the right, time interval is 0.2 s. At each time interval percentages add up to 100. They indicate the proportion of response pairs that fall into each category. First responses classified as too small in rows 3 and 4 are less than 75% of correct size. In many cases this is because the person does not initiate first response until first step has been replaced by second step of the pair.

From Poulton 119
Figure 14. Figure 14.

Mean reaction times to 1st and 2nd steps of a pair in Vince's experiment 152. Interval I between steps is shown on abscissa. At short intervals, differences between mean reaction times to 1st and 2nd stimuli are partly determined by psychological refractory period. Differences are smaller for squares, which represent pairs of steps where 1st response is too small, than for circles where 1st response is about the right size.

From Poulton 119
Figure 15. Figure 15.

Mean choice reaction times (RT) when 2 stimuli are presented in close succession with highly compatible responses, which do not interfere with each other. Table 6 shows that means of simultaneous experiment in right panel at intervals between stimuli of 0.1 and 0.2 s can be fitted by a combination of 2 distinct strategies: 1) respond at once to 1st stimulus and then wait for the 2nd stimulus; 2) wait for 2nd stimulus and respond to both stimuli simultaneously with a dual response.

Data from Greenwald and Schulman 54
Figure 16. Figure 16.

Mean reaction time to a 2‐choice probe tone presented at various times during or after reaction time or movement of forearm. Approximate times along bottom are for condition 2W, 2‐choice forearm movements to wide 5° target. Approximate times along top are for condition 2N, 2‐choice forearm movements to narrow 1° target. With 3 choices and narrow target, condition 3N, average forearm reaction time is about 0.1 s longer than for 2N.

Data from Ells 41
Figure 17. Figure 17.

Theoretical programs of control movements that are required to correct an error in position with different orders of control system. A rate‐aided control combines position and rate control.

From Poulton 119


Figure 1.

A simple model for deliberate or voluntary control, showing the main limitations of the brain. The model was produced for a lecture in 1963. The general layout follows Broadbent's model (p. 299 in ref. 19), but most boxes are labeled differently. Broadbent's labels correspond to his theories at that time, which are now largely outdated. The flow of information from receptors through central mechanisms to effectors follows Welford 156. The use of boxes to represent functions comes from electrical engineering 17. The internal rehearsal loop appears to have been an innovation in 1963.

From Poulton 116


Figure 2.

Latin square and AB‐BA within‐subjects designs of the kind generally used in experiments with people. For the complete 4 × 4 latin square, A, B, C., and D represent 4 experimental conditions. Columns show order in which conditions are performed by the 4 people represented by rows. Each person performs every condition, and each condition is presented once in every serial position. For the 2 × 2 AB‐BA design enclosed by the dashed lines, there are only 2 conditions, 2 orders, and 2 people or groups of people.



Figure 3.

Contraction bias in an experiment with 10 different sizes of step. Small steps are overshot on the average; large steps are undershot. Average constant error, CE, is smallest for steps in the middle of the range.

From Poulton 119; data from Slack 141


Figure 4.

Asymmetric transfer between pursuit and compensatory tracking. Before transfer (left) filled points for pursuit tracking lie reliably below unfilled points for compensatory tracking. After transfer (right) filled diamonds for pursuit tracking lie a little below unfilled triangles for compensatory tracking, but the difference is not now reliable. Notice that on left before transfer, both groups that are to change conditions have smaller average errors than the corresponding control groups that are not to change conditions. This could be an “experimenter effect,” a direct influence of the experimenter on the people in different groups, which the experimenter may not realize 131. It can happen if the experimenter is less interested in control groups than in groups that change conditions.

From Poulton 119; data from Gordon 52


Figure 5.

Pursuit and compensatory displays. In tracking with a pursuit display, the person sees the track or input signal and also the output of his control or control system. He must match the two. In tracking with a compensatory display, the person sees only his error. Error is the difference between the track or input signal and the output of the person's control or control system. Compensatory tracking is the more difficult task. Block diagrams on right illustrate the way in which person and experimental equipment are connected. They do not indicate the nonlinear strategies that a person actually uses.

From Poulton 119


Figure 6.

Effect of response reference point, Rrp, on the theoretical stopping points of movements aimed at targets of various distances. The movements, labeled Resp for response, start at bottom and go vertically up page, as indicated by arrows. Thick vertical lines, labeled Stim for stimulus, show range of correct stopping points in arbitrary arithmetic units of distance. Sloping lines show average constant error, CE, or average algebraic error taking account of the sign. A: sloping lines reflect contraction bias. Width of distributions of stopping points illustrate Weber's law for the standard deviation of error, SD, or variable error. BD: slopes of the lines are determined by a response reference point, Rrp, represented by the diamond. The response reference points lie respectively just within, at end of, or just beyond the far end of the range of correct stopping points. Width of distribution of stopping points at far end of range is reduced by response reference point.



Figure 7.

Theoretical relation of the modulus mean error (average absolute error) to constant error (average algebraic error) when both measures are expressed as proportions of the standard deviation of the error (variable error). Relation is shown by solid line. It assumes a normal or Gaussian distribution of errors, as in the distributions of Pig. 6.



Figure 8.

Effect of starting position of a reproduced movement.

A: reproduced movement starts ahead of criterion movement. This produces a negative constant error in reproducing distance of criterion movement and a positive constant error in reproducing location of its stopping point. B: reproduced movement starts behind criterion movement. This produces a positive constant error in reproducing distance and a negative constant error in reproducing location of stopping point


Figure 9.

Theoretical reaction times (RTs) in tracking steps. Stimulus is a downward step at time 0 on abscissa. A correct response is an upward step of same size. After a response in wrong direction, function 2 illustrates a one‐choice visual reaction time; function 3 illustrates a one‐choice kinesthetic reaction time. Function 6 illustrates the psychological refractory period, Ψ, for the correction of an anticipatory response once the unexpected stimulus appears.



Figure 10.

A selected record of step tracking from the experiment of Trumbo et al. 151. Steps occur every 1.0 s, as indicated at top. Irregular steps start and end at a different one of the 6 positions, 0–5, indicated on ordinate. Thus times and directions of steps 1, 4, and 5 are certain. For predictable step 8, size is certain as well as time and direction.

From Poulton 119


Figure 11.

Theoretical functions for choice reaction times with different numbers of choices. Unfilled circles represent average reaction times after minimum practice. Filled points show how reaction times diminish after days of practice, especially when there are many choices. This produces less steep functions. If the same people practice all the conditions, average reaction time may eventually be the same for 8 choices as for only 2 choices. This is indicated by filled circles and solid line.



Figure 12.

Strategies used in experiments on psychological refractory period with 2 manual responses. Top 2 rows illustrate what a person does in a simple experiment before training. Stimuli S1 and S2 are separated by time interval I. Recorded starts, R1 and R2, of the 2 corresponding manual responses have reaction times RT1 and RT2. The r1 just before R1 in top row indicates time at which computer of Fig. 1 finishes dealing with S1 and R1. The RT2 in second row would normally equal RTn, but it is increased by psychological refractory period, which is indicated by horizontal dashed line. In row 3 computer takes longer to prepare for S2R2 pairs. This could be due to interference between S1R1 and S2R2 pairs, or to not expecting S2 so soon. In row 4 S1 is held until S2 occurs. A single complex response is then made to the two stimuli.



Figure 13.

Selected responses to pairs of steps in Vince's experiment 152. Thick line represents track that has to be followed. Thin line represents person's response. On the left of the figure the time interval between the 2 steps is 0.05 s, on the right, time interval is 0.2 s. At each time interval percentages add up to 100. They indicate the proportion of response pairs that fall into each category. First responses classified as too small in rows 3 and 4 are less than 75% of correct size. In many cases this is because the person does not initiate first response until first step has been replaced by second step of the pair.

From Poulton 119


Figure 14.

Mean reaction times to 1st and 2nd steps of a pair in Vince's experiment 152. Interval I between steps is shown on abscissa. At short intervals, differences between mean reaction times to 1st and 2nd stimuli are partly determined by psychological refractory period. Differences are smaller for squares, which represent pairs of steps where 1st response is too small, than for circles where 1st response is about the right size.

From Poulton 119


Figure 15.

Mean choice reaction times (RT) when 2 stimuli are presented in close succession with highly compatible responses, which do not interfere with each other. Table 6 shows that means of simultaneous experiment in right panel at intervals between stimuli of 0.1 and 0.2 s can be fitted by a combination of 2 distinct strategies: 1) respond at once to 1st stimulus and then wait for the 2nd stimulus; 2) wait for 2nd stimulus and respond to both stimuli simultaneously with a dual response.

Data from Greenwald and Schulman 54


Figure 16.

Mean reaction time to a 2‐choice probe tone presented at various times during or after reaction time or movement of forearm. Approximate times along bottom are for condition 2W, 2‐choice forearm movements to wide 5° target. Approximate times along top are for condition 2N, 2‐choice forearm movements to narrow 1° target. With 3 choices and narrow target, condition 3N, average forearm reaction time is about 0.1 s longer than for 2N.

Data from Ells 41


Figure 17.

Theoretical programs of control movements that are required to correct an error in position with different orders of control system. A rate‐aided control combines position and rate control.

From Poulton 119
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E. C. Poulton. Human Manual Control. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 2: Handbook of Physiology, The Nervous System, Motor Control: 1337-1389. First published in print 1981. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp010230