Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library
For Librarians For Authors Editors About

Corollary Discharges: Motor Commands and Perception

D. I. McCloskey

10.1002/cphy.cp010232

Source: Supplement 2: Handbook of Physiology, The Nervous System, Motor Control

Originally published: 1981

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Historical Development
2 Terminology
3 Corollaries of Motor Commands to Limb and Trunk Muscles
3.1 Sensations of Movement
3.2 Interactions Between Corollary Discharges and Kinesthetic Afferent Inputs
3.3 Corollary Discharges and Somatosensory Afferents
3.4 Sensations of Muscular Force or Heaviness
4 Corollary Discharges and Eye Movements
4.1 Corollary Discharges and Kinesthetic Sensibility in the Eye
4.2 Corollary Discharges and Visual Perception
5 Electrophysiological Correlates of Motor Commands
6 Other Instances of Central Irradiation by Motor Commands
7 Conclusions
8 Summary
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Figure depicts circumstances important in historical development of ideas regarding corollary discharges and visual stability. Diagrams show actual positions of eye, viewed target, and retinal image. What appears to the subject to be happening is stated under each diagram.
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Efference copy‐reafference mechanism, as applied to eye.

Adapted from von Holst 85
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Index finger of left hand (circled) had been ring blocked by injection of lignocaine at base. Blindfolded subject was asked to extend all digits of affected hand starting from position of flexion. Immediately afterward, subject was to put fingers of other hand into position of affected hand. Position was then voluntarily frozen and photographed. Subject felt insentient finger failed to extend at all joints, though it actually did so.

From Goodwin, McCloskey, and Matthews 62
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Records demonstrate that upon progressive paralysis of a limb, perception of movement may be more severely impaired than actual ability to move, making it unlikely that perception of movement depends primarily on sensations of innervation. Top trace shows movements at metacarpophalangeal joint of index finger of one hand with circulation to arm occluded; interphalangeal joints were fixed in full extension by strapping. Periodically subject was asked to raise finger to full extension and then to lower it again; in between, finger lay partly flexed under action of gravity. Immediately afterward, subject was asked to make equivalent movement with index finger of other hand, thus providing an objective measure of the subject's perception of extent of movement being paralyzed. Left: circulation to whole of forearm and hand was occluded by pressure cuff above elbow, which eventually led to complete paralysis of all muscles involved and to complete loss of sensation. Even when paralyzed, subject still attempted movement at 0.5‐min intervals. Right: pressure cuff shifted to wrist so that hand remained anesthetized, but muscles of forearm recovered. Upper cuff was inflated for 13 min before beginning of records shown. There was 14‐min interval between left and right sets of records. Recordings were made by connecting fingers to freely moving potentiometers. Subject could not see hands or recordings.

From Goodwin, McCloskey, and Matthews 62
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Angular velocity of illusory movement of elbow extension induced by vibration of biceps brachii at 100 Hz, plotted against load at wrist borne by tensing vibrated biceps. Closed circles are points obtained when biceps carried its loads only briefly and so was not fatigued. Open circles are points obtained when biceps was fatigued through period of prolonged and continuous weight bearing.

From McCloskey 135
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Subject was given a 9‐Ib weight (4.09 kg) to support by contraction of biceps brachialis of one arm and, in a series of trials, was to choose apparently equal weights supported in same way by other arm. When reference arm was rested between trials (closed circles), subject chose weights close to reference weight in attempts to match it. When reference arm supported its weight continuously (open circles), it became fatigued, and weights heavier than reference weight were chosen to match it.

From McCloskey et al. 137
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Summary of factors affecting perceived muscular force or heaviness.
Figure 8. Figure 8.

False move corrected without visual feedback. At time indicated at top, visible target jumped to left. Subject responded by moving hand to left, causing marker to move in wrong direction. While marker was still behind screen and therefore invisible (shaded area), subject reversed direction of movement. Marker then became visible at left (correct) side of screen. Response was classified as false move, reversed while marker was invisible. Reversal was commenced in shorter time than kinesthetic reaction time.

From Angel 2
Figure 9. Figure 9.

Representative scheme showing typical variability of equally directed precise (solid line) or imprecise (dashed line) conditioned eye fixation movements in successive trials. Abscissa, time; ordinates, eye displacement during trials. In response to auditory signal, subjects turned their eyes toward a fixation point, the location of which was learned when it was visible some time before.

From Gurevitch 72
Figure 10. Figure 10.

Neural reconstruction of target position relative to body. Neural reconstruction of target velocity must be based on velocity signals related to same angles.

From Miles and Evarts 147. Reproduced with permission from Annu. Rev. Psychol. 30: 327–362, 1979
Figure 11. Figure 11.

Mean shifts in perceived direction of fixation target for various loads applied to left and right of subject's (AS) right eye. Subject's mean straight‐ahead position (based on trials when no load was applied) is shown as intersection of axes. Mean shifts in perceived direction are plotted as circles when fixation target was present straight ahead and as crosses when target was presented 13.5 deg arc to right. Rectangle on right shows objective position of displaced fixation target. Oblique lines indicate perceived shift in target direction predicted from outflow theory. Each data point is mean of 10 position measures; error bars indicate ± 1 SD.

From Skavenski et al. 179
Figure 12. Figure 12.

Pointing overshoot errors associated with complete oculomotor paralysis caused by retrobulbar injection of curare and local anesthetic. Subject was seated and head fixed with bite bar. Experimenter placed finger on table in front of subject. Subject then attempted ballistically to touch experimenter's finger. Right eye was paralyzed and left eye occluded. Each black circle represents a target point and length of arrow leading from it represents approximate error range for normal subject. Bar at top corresponds to 1 ft, and open arrow at bottom is subject. Same results were obtained under wide variety of conditions (e.g., no bite bar or no visual feedback) in this subject 190. Other subjects did not demonstrate these effects 18.

From Stevens 190
Figure 13. Figure 13.

Summary of current knowledge on several aspects of visual stability that are relevant to consideration of corollary discharges. Diagrams show actual positions of eye, viewed target and retinal image. Figure should be contrasted with Figure 1, which depicts historically important observations.
Figure 14. Figure 14.

Activity of neurons of ventral spinocerebellar tract during “fictive scratching,” that is, with animal paralyzed. A‐C, decerebrate cat. Each line of recording is direct continuation of preceding one. Arrows denote start and end of stimulation of 1st cervical segment of spinal cord. D, decapitated cat. Upper part of each oscillogram gives extracellular recording of neuron of ventral spinocerebellar tract; lower part gives activity in nerve activating gastrocnemius muscle.

From Arshavskii et al. 5
Figure 15. Figure 15.

Paralyzed anesthetized dog. During period of recording, respiratory pump was temporarily stopped so that animal was completely motionless. Record of phrenic‐nerve discharge (leaky integrator) shows timing of central inspiratory activity. Note that heart rate is in phase with central inspiratory cycle. Left panel shows 2 brief, selective stimuli delivered to arterial chemoreceptors at markers; right panel shows 2 brief, selective stimuli (pressure pulses) delivered to arterial baroreceptors at markers. In each panel, stimulus given during expiratory phase of central respiratory cycle (i.e., during phrenic inactivity) is shown to evoke reflex slowing of heart; stimuli given during inspiratory phase of central respiratory cycle fail to slow heart.

From Gandevia, McCloskey, and Potter 53


Figure 1.

Figure depicts circumstances important in historical development of ideas regarding corollary discharges and visual stability. Diagrams show actual positions of eye, viewed target, and retinal image. What appears to the subject to be happening is stated under each diagram.



Figure 2.

Efference copy‐reafference mechanism, as applied to eye.

Adapted from von Holst 85


Figure 3.

Index finger of left hand (circled) had been ring blocked by injection of lignocaine at base. Blindfolded subject was asked to extend all digits of affected hand starting from position of flexion. Immediately afterward, subject was to put fingers of other hand into position of affected hand. Position was then voluntarily frozen and photographed. Subject felt insentient finger failed to extend at all joints, though it actually did so.

From Goodwin, McCloskey, and Matthews 62


Figure 4.

Records demonstrate that upon progressive paralysis of a limb, perception of movement may be more severely impaired than actual ability to move, making it unlikely that perception of movement depends primarily on sensations of innervation. Top trace shows movements at metacarpophalangeal joint of index finger of one hand with circulation to arm occluded; interphalangeal joints were fixed in full extension by strapping. Periodically subject was asked to raise finger to full extension and then to lower it again; in between, finger lay partly flexed under action of gravity. Immediately afterward, subject was asked to make equivalent movement with index finger of other hand, thus providing an objective measure of the subject's perception of extent of movement being paralyzed. Left: circulation to whole of forearm and hand was occluded by pressure cuff above elbow, which eventually led to complete paralysis of all muscles involved and to complete loss of sensation. Even when paralyzed, subject still attempted movement at 0.5‐min intervals. Right: pressure cuff shifted to wrist so that hand remained anesthetized, but muscles of forearm recovered. Upper cuff was inflated for 13 min before beginning of records shown. There was 14‐min interval between left and right sets of records. Recordings were made by connecting fingers to freely moving potentiometers. Subject could not see hands or recordings.

From Goodwin, McCloskey, and Matthews 62


Figure 5.

Angular velocity of illusory movement of elbow extension induced by vibration of biceps brachii at 100 Hz, plotted against load at wrist borne by tensing vibrated biceps. Closed circles are points obtained when biceps carried its loads only briefly and so was not fatigued. Open circles are points obtained when biceps was fatigued through period of prolonged and continuous weight bearing.

From McCloskey 135


Figure 6.

Subject was given a 9‐Ib weight (4.09 kg) to support by contraction of biceps brachialis of one arm and, in a series of trials, was to choose apparently equal weights supported in same way by other arm. When reference arm was rested between trials (closed circles), subject chose weights close to reference weight in attempts to match it. When reference arm supported its weight continuously (open circles), it became fatigued, and weights heavier than reference weight were chosen to match it.

From McCloskey et al. 137


Figure 7.

Summary of factors affecting perceived muscular force or heaviness.



Figure 8.

False move corrected without visual feedback. At time indicated at top, visible target jumped to left. Subject responded by moving hand to left, causing marker to move in wrong direction. While marker was still behind screen and therefore invisible (shaded area), subject reversed direction of movement. Marker then became visible at left (correct) side of screen. Response was classified as false move, reversed while marker was invisible. Reversal was commenced in shorter time than kinesthetic reaction time.

From Angel 2


Figure 9.

Representative scheme showing typical variability of equally directed precise (solid line) or imprecise (dashed line) conditioned eye fixation movements in successive trials. Abscissa, time; ordinates, eye displacement during trials. In response to auditory signal, subjects turned their eyes toward a fixation point, the location of which was learned when it was visible some time before.

From Gurevitch 72


Figure 10.

Neural reconstruction of target position relative to body. Neural reconstruction of target velocity must be based on velocity signals related to same angles.

From Miles and Evarts 147. Reproduced with permission from Annu. Rev. Psychol. 30: 327–362, 1979


Figure 11.

Mean shifts in perceived direction of fixation target for various loads applied to left and right of subject's (AS) right eye. Subject's mean straight‐ahead position (based on trials when no load was applied) is shown as intersection of axes. Mean shifts in perceived direction are plotted as circles when fixation target was present straight ahead and as crosses when target was presented 13.5 deg arc to right. Rectangle on right shows objective position of displaced fixation target. Oblique lines indicate perceived shift in target direction predicted from outflow theory. Each data point is mean of 10 position measures; error bars indicate ± 1 SD.

From Skavenski et al. 179


Figure 12.

Pointing overshoot errors associated with complete oculomotor paralysis caused by retrobulbar injection of curare and local anesthetic. Subject was seated and head fixed with bite bar. Experimenter placed finger on table in front of subject. Subject then attempted ballistically to touch experimenter's finger. Right eye was paralyzed and left eye occluded. Each black circle represents a target point and length of arrow leading from it represents approximate error range for normal subject. Bar at top corresponds to 1 ft, and open arrow at bottom is subject. Same results were obtained under wide variety of conditions (e.g., no bite bar or no visual feedback) in this subject 190. Other subjects did not demonstrate these effects 18.

From Stevens 190


Figure 13.

Summary of current knowledge on several aspects of visual stability that are relevant to consideration of corollary discharges. Diagrams show actual positions of eye, viewed target and retinal image. Figure should be contrasted with Figure 1, which depicts historically important observations.



Figure 14.

Activity of neurons of ventral spinocerebellar tract during “fictive scratching,” that is, with animal paralyzed. A‐C, decerebrate cat. Each line of recording is direct continuation of preceding one. Arrows denote start and end of stimulation of 1st cervical segment of spinal cord. D, decapitated cat. Upper part of each oscillogram gives extracellular recording of neuron of ventral spinocerebellar tract; lower part gives activity in nerve activating gastrocnemius muscle.

From Arshavskii et al. 5


Figure 15.

Paralyzed anesthetized dog. During period of recording, respiratory pump was temporarily stopped so that animal was completely motionless. Record of phrenic‐nerve discharge (leaky integrator) shows timing of central inspiratory activity. Note that heart rate is in phase with central inspiratory cycle. Left panel shows 2 brief, selective stimuli delivered to arterial chemoreceptors at markers; right panel shows 2 brief, selective stimuli (pressure pulses) delivered to arterial baroreceptors at markers. In each panel, stimulus given during expiratory phase of central respiratory cycle (i.e., during phrenic inactivity) is shown to evoke reflex slowing of heart; stimuli given during inspiratory phase of central respiratory cycle fail to slow heart.

From Gandevia, McCloskey, and Potter 53
References
 1. Adrian, E. D., D. W. Bronk, and G. Phillips. Discharges in mammalian sympathetic nerves. J. Physiol. London 74: 115–129, 1932.
 2. Angel, R. W. Efference copy in the control of movement. Neurology 26: 1164–1168, 1976.
 3. Anrep, G. V., W. Pascual, and R. Rossler. Respiratory variations of the heart rate. I. The reflex mechanism of respiratory arrhythmia. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B 119: 191–217, 1936.
 4. Anrep, G. V., W. Pascual, and R. Rossler. Respiratory variations of the heart rate. II. The central mechanism of the respiratory arrhythmia and the interrelations between the central and reflex mechanisms. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B 119: 218–230, 1936.
 5. Arshavskii, IuI, I. M. Gel'fand, G. N. Orlovskii, and G. A. Pavlova. Activity of the neurones of the ventral spinocerebellar tract in ‘fictitious scratching.’ Biophysics 20: 748–749, 1975.
 6. Asmussen, E., S. H. Johansen, M. Jorgensen, and M. Nielsen. On the nervous factors controlling respiration and circulation during exercise. Acta Physiol. Scand. 63: 343–350, 1965.
 7. Bain, A. Mind and Body. London: Kegan Paul, 1878.
 8. Bairstow, P. J., and J. I. Laszlo. The nerve compression block technique: a reply to Kelso, Stelmach and Wanamaker. J. Mot. Behav. 8: 147–153, 1976.
 9. Barker, D. L'innervation motrice du muscle strié des vertébrés. Actual. Neurophysiol. 8: 23–71, 1968.
 10. Bastian, H. C. The “muscular sense”; its nature and cortical localisation. Brain 10: 1–37, 1887.
 11. Bastian, H. C. The functions of the kinaesthetic areas of the brain. Brain 32: 328–341, 1909.
 12. Bell, C. The Hand—Its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing Design. London: Pickering, 1833.
 13. Bianconi, R., and J. P. van der Meulen. The responses to vibration of the end organs of mammalian muscle spindles. J. Neurophysiol. 26: 177–190, 1963.
 14. Bizzi, E. Single unit activity in the frontal eye fields of unanesthetized monkeys during eye and head movement. Exp. Brain Res. 10: 151–158, 1970.
 15. Bors, E. Phantom limbs of patients with spinal cord injury. Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry 66: 610–631, 1951.
 16. Bossom, J. Movement without proprioception. Brain Res. 71: 285–296, 1974.
 17. Bradley, K. C. The Sequelae of Amputation. Sydney: Trustees of the Services Canteens Trust Fund, 1955.
 18. Brindley, G. S., G. M. Goodwin, J. J. Kulikowski, and D. Leighton. Proceedings: stability of vision with a paralysed eye. J. Physiol. London 258: 66P–66P, 1976.
 19. Brindley, G. S., and P. A. Merton. The absence of position sense in the human eye. J. Physiol. London 153: 127–130, 1960.
 20. Brinkman, J., and R. Porter. Movement performance and afferent projections to the sensorimotor cortex in monkeys with dorsal column lesions. In: Active Touch—The Mechanism of Recognition of Objects by Manipulation: A Multidisciplinary Approach, edited by G. Gordon. Oxford: Pergamon, 1978, p. 119–138.
 21. Brodal, A. Self‐observations and neuro‐anatomical considerations after a stroke. Brain 96: 675–694, 1973.
 22. Brown, M. C., I. Engberg, and P. B. C. Matthews. The relative sensitivity to vibration of muscle receptors of the cat. J. Physiol. London 192: 773–800, 1967.
 23. Burke, D., K.‐E. Hagbarth, L. Löfstedt, and B. G. Wallin. The responses of human muscle spindle endings to vibration of noncontracting muscles. J. Physiol. London 261: 673–694, 1976.
 24. Burke, D., K.‐E. Hagbarth, L. Löfstedt, and B. G. Wallin. The responses of human muscle spindle endings to vibration during isometric contraction. J. Physiol. London 261: 695–711, 1976.
 25. Campbell, E. J. M. Discussion: the sense of effort. In: Breathing: Hering‐Breuer Centenary Symposium, edited by R. Porter. London: Churchill, 1970, p. 213.
 26. Chambers, R. A., and R. W. Gilliatt. The clinical assessment of postural sensation in the fingers. J. Physiol. London 123: 42P, 1954.
 27. Cogan, D. G. Neurology of the Ocular Muscles (2nd ed.). Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1969.
 28. Coggeshall, R. E., J. D. Coulter, and W. D. Willis. Unmyelinated axons in the ventral roots of the cat lumbosacral enlargement. J. Comp. Neurol. 153: 39–58, 1974.
 29. Coggeshall, R. E., and H. Ito. Sensory fibres in ventral roots L7 and S1 in the cat. J. Physiol. London 267: 215–235, 1977.
 30. Colclough, J. A., and D. H. Echols. Abolition of painful phantom foot by resection of sensory cortex. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 134: 1476–1477, 1947.
 31. Coquery, J. M. Role of active movement in control of afferent input from skin in cat and man. In: Active Touch—The Mechanism of Recognition of Objects by Manipulation: A Multidisciplinary Approach, edited by G. Gordon. Oxford: Pergamon, 1978, p. 161–169.
 32. Daly, M. de B. Interaction of cardiovascular reflexes. Scientific Basis of Medicine: Annual Reviews, edited by British Postgraduate Medical Federation. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1972, p. 307–332.
 33. De Gail, P., J. W. Lance, and P. D. Neilson. Differential effects on tonic and phasic reflex mechanisms produced by vibration of muscles in man. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 29: 1–11, 1966.
 34. Dichgans, J., and E. Bizzi. (editors). Cerebral Control of Eye Movements and Motion Perception. Basel: Karger, 1972. [Bibl. Ophthalmol., no. 82.]
 35. Drooglever Fortuyn, J. The operation: a fundamental aspect of nervous function. Psychiatr. Neurol. Neurochir. 72: 257–261, 1969.
 36. Dyhre‐Poulsen, P. Perception of tactile stimuli before ballistic and during tracking movements. In: Active Touch—The Mechanism of Recognition of Objects by Manipulation: A Multidisciplinary Approach, edited by G. Gordon. Oxford: Pergamon, 1978, p. 171–176.
 37. Emonet‐Dénand, F., L. Jami, and Y. Laporte. Skeleto‐fusimotor axons in hind‐limb muscles of the cat. J. Physiol. London 249: 153–166, 1975.
 38. Evarts, E. V. Central control of movement. Feedback and corollary discharge: a merging of the concepts. Neurosci. Res. Program Bull. 9: 86–112, 1971.
 39. Feldman, A. G., and G. N. Orlovsky. Activity of interneurons mediating reciprocal Ia inhibition during locomotion. Brain Res. 84: 181–194, 1975.
 40. Ferrier, D. The Functions of the Brain. London: Smith, Elder, 1876. London: Dawson Reprint, 1966.
 41. Festinger, L., and L. K. Canon. Information about spatial location based on knowledge about efference. Psychol. Rev. 72: 373–384, 1965.
 42. Fisher, C. M., and H. B. Curry. Pure motor hemiplegia of vascular origin. Arch. Neurol. Chicago 13: 30–44, 1965.
 43. Foerster, O. Indication and results of the excision of the posterior spinal nerve roots in man. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 16: 463–474, 1913.
 44. Freyschuss, U. Cardiovascular adjustment to somatomotor activation. The elicitation of increments in heart rate, aortic pressure and venomotor tone with the initiation of muscle contraction. Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl. 342: 1, 1970.
 45. Gandevia, S. C. The sensation of heaviness after surgical disconnection of the cerebral hemispheres in man. Brain 101: 295–305, 1978.
 46. Gandevia, S. C., and D. I. McCloskey. Joint sense, muscle sense, and their combination as position sense, measured at the distal interphalangeal joint of the middle finger. J. Physiol. London 260: 387–407, 1976.
 47. Gandevia, S. C., and D. I. McCloskey. Perceived heaviness of lifted objects and effects of sensory inputs from related non‐lifting parts. Brain Res. 109: 399–401, 1976.
 48. Gandevia, S. C., and D. I. McCloskey. Afferent information required for interpretation of the sense of effort. Proc. Aust. Physiol. Pharmacol. Soc. 8: 179P, 1977.
 49. Gandevia, S. C., and D. I. McCloskey. Effects of related sensory inputs on motor performances in man studied through changes in perceived heaviness. J. Physiol. London 272: 653–672, 1977.
 50. Gandevia, S. C., and D. I. McCloskey. Changes in motor commands, as shown by changes in perceived heaviness, during partial curarization and peripheral anaesthesia in man. J. Physiol. London 272: 673–689, 1977.
 51. Gandevia, S. C., and D. I. McCloskey. Sensations of heaviness. Brain 100: 345–354, 1977.
 52. Gandevia, S. C., and D. I. McCloskey. Interpretation of perceived motor commands by reference to afferent signals. J. Physiol. London 283: 493–499, 1978.
 53. Gandevia, S. C., D. I. McCloskey, and E. K. Potter. Inhibition of baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes on heart rate by afferents from the lungs. J. Physiol. London 276: 369–381, 1978.
 54. Gandevia, S. C., D. I. McCloskey, and E. K. Potter. Changes in perceived heaviness of objects lifted by flexion of the thumb during anaesthesia of the thumb and paralysis of its extensor muscle. Proc. Aust. Physiol. Pharmacol. Soc. 10: 32, 1979.
 55. Gelfan, S., and S. Carter. Muscle sense in man. Exp. Neurol. 18: 469–473, 1967.
 56. Gibson, J. J. Observations on active touch. Psychol. Rev. 69: 477–491, 1962.
 57. Gilman, S., D. Carr, and J. Hollenberg. Kinematic effects of deafferentation and cerebellar ablation. Brain 99: 311–330, 1976.
 58. Glencross, D. J., and S. R. Oldfield. The use of ischemic nerve block procedures in the investigation of the sensory control of movements. Biol. Psychol. 2: 227–236, 1975.
 59. Godfrey, S., and E. J. M. Campbell. The role of afferent impulses from the lung and chest wall in respiratory control and sensation. In: Breathing: Hering‐Breuer Centenary Symposium, edited by R. Porter. London: Churchill, 1970, p. 219–232.
 60. Goldsheider, A. Untersuchungen uber den Muskelsinn. Arch. Anat. Physiol. Leipzig 3: 369–502, 1889. (Ministry Supply, U.K. Trans. No. 20825T.)
 61. Goodwin, G. M. The sense of limb position and movement. Exercise Sport Sci. Rev. 4: 87–124, 1976.
 62. Goodwin, G. M., D. I. McCloskey, and P. B. C. Matthews. The contribution of muscle afferents to kinaesthesia shown by vibration induced illusions of movement and by the effects of paralysing joint afferents. Brain 95: 705–748, 1972.
 63. Goodwin, G. M., D. I. McCloskey, and P. B. C. Matthews. The persistence of appreciable kinaesthesia after paralysing joint afferents but preserving muscle afferents. Brain Res. 37: 326–329, 1972.
 64. Goodwin, G. M., D. I. McCloskey, and P. B. C. Matthews. Proprioceptive illusions induced by muscle vibration: contribution to perception by muscle spindles? Science 175: 1382–1384, 1972.
 65. Goodwin, G. M., D. I. McCloskey, and J. H. Mitchell. Cardiovascular and respiratory responses to changes in central command during isometric exercise at constant muscle tension. J. Physiol. London 226: 173–190, 1972.
 66. Gordon, G. The concept of relay nuclei. In: Handbook of Sensory Physiology. Somatosensory System, edited by A. Iggo. New York: Springer‐Verlag, 1973, vol. 2, p. 137–150.
 67. Gordon, G. Introduction. In: Active Touch—The Mechanism of Recognition of Objects by Manipulation: A Multidisciplinary Approach, edited by G. Gordon. Oxford: Pergamon, 1978, p. xiii–xxii.
 68. Gowers, W. R. Diseases of the Nervous System. Philadelphia. PA: Blakiston, 1892, vols. 1, 2.
 69. Granit, R. The Basis of Motor Control. New York: Academic, 1970.
 70. Granit, R. Constant errors in the execution and appreciation of movement. Brain 95: 649–660, 1972.
 71. Grillner, S. Locomotion in vertebrates: central mechanisms and reflex interaction. Physiol. Rev. 55: 247–304, 1975.
 72. Gurevitch, B. K. Possible role of higher proprioceptive centres in the perception of visual space and in the control of motor behaviour. Nature London 184: 1219–1220, 1959.
 73. Hagbarth, K.‐E., and G. Eklund. Motor effects of vibratory muscle stimuli in man. In: Muscular Afferents and Motor Control (1st ed.), edited by R. Granit New York: Wiley, 1966, p. 177–186.
 74. Hagbarth, K.‐E., and Å. B. Vallbo. Discharge characteristics of human muscle afferents during muscle stretch and contraction. Exp. Neurol. 22: 674–694, 1968.
 75. Hagbarth, K.‐E., and Å. B. Vallbo. Single unit recordings from muscle nerves in human subjects. Acta Physiol. Scand. 76: 321–334, 1969.
 76. Head, H., and G. Holmes. Sensory disturbances from cerebral lesions. Brain 34: 102–254, 1911.
 77. Helmholtz, H. Helmholtz's Treatise on Physiological Optics. (3rd ed.), edited by J. P. C. Southall. Menasha, WI: Opt. Soc. Am., 1925, vol. 3.
 78. Henderson, W. R., and G. E. Smyth. Phantom limbs. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 11: 88–112, 1948.
 79. Henneman, E. The Cerebellum. In: Medical Physiology (13th ed.), edited by V. B. Mountcastle. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1974, vol. 1, p. 742.
 80. Hering, E. Der Raumsinn und die Bewegungen der Augen. In: “Hermann” Handbuch der Physiologic Leipzig: Vogel, 1879, vol. 3, p. 343–601.
 81. Hodgson, H. J. F., and P. B. C. Matthews. The ineffectiveness of excitation of the primary endings of the muscle spindle by vibration as a respiratory stimulant in the decerebrate cat. J. Physiol. London 194: 555–564, 1968.
 82. Holmes, G. The symptoms of acute cerebellar injuries due to gunshot injuries. Brain 40: 461–535, 1917.
 83. Holmes, G. The Croonian Lectures on the clinical symptoms of cerebellar disease and their interpretation. Lancet 2: 111–115, 1922.
 84. von Holst, E. Relations between the central nervous system and the peripheral organs. Br. J. Anim. Behav. 2: 89–94, 1954.
 85. von Holst, E. Active functions of human visual perception. In: Selected Papers of Erich von Holst: The Behavioural Physiology of Animals and Man. London: Methuen, 1973, vol. 1, p. 192–219. [Transl. from German by R. Martin.]
 86. von Holst, E., and H. Mittelstaedt. The reafference principle. Interaction between the central nervous sytem and the periphery. In: Selected Papers of Erich von Holst: The Behavioural Physiology of Animals and Man. London: Methuen, 1973, vol. 1, p. 139–173. [Transl. from German by R. Martin.]
 87. Irvine, S. R., and E. J. Ludvigh. Is ocular proprioceptive sense concerned in vision? Arch. Ophthalmol. 15: 1037–1049, 1936.
 88. Jackson, J. H., and L. Paton. On some abnormalities of ocular movements. Lancet 176: 900–905, 1909.
 89. James, W. The Principles of Psychology. New York: Holt, 1890. New York: Dover Reprint, 1950.
 90. Johnson, S. Letters, edited by R. W. Chapman Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1952, vol. 3, p. 30, 40.
 91. Johnstone, J. R., and R. F. Mark. Two classes of eye movement and their perceptual consequences. Proc. Aust. Physiol. Pharmacol. Soc. 1: 46–47, 1970.
 92. Johnstone, J. R., and R. F. Mark. The efference copy neurone. J. Exp. Biol. 54: 403–414, 1971.
 93. Johnstone, J. R., and R. F. Mark. Letter to the editors: corollary discharge. Vision Res. 13: 1621, 1973.
 94. Jones, E. G. The development of the ‘muscular sense’ concept during the nineteenth century and the work of H. Charlton Bastian. J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci. 27: 298–311, 1972.
 95. Jung, R. Conclusions—how do we see with moving eyes? In: Cerebral Control of Eye Movements and Motion Perception, edited by J. Dichgans, and E. Bizzi. Basel: Karger, 1972, p. 377–395. [Bibl. Ophthalmol., no. 82.]
 96. Kelso, J. A. S. Motor control mechanisms underlying human movement reproduction. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. 3: 529–543, 1977.
 97. Kelso, J. A. S., G. E. Stelmach, and W. M. Wanamaker. The continuing saga of the nerve compression block technique. J. Mot. Behav. 8: 155–160, 1976.
 98. Kennedy, D., and W. J. Davis. Organization of invertebrate motor systems. In: Handbook of Physiology. The Nervous System, edited by J. M. Brookhart, and V. B. Mountcastle. Bethesda, MD: Am. Phvsiol. Soc., 1977, sect. 1, vol. I, pt. 2, p. 1023–1087.
 99. King, C. E., E. A. Blair, and W. E. Garrey. The inspiratory augmentation of proprioceptive reflexes. A study of the knee jerk and the Achilles reflex. Am. J. Physiol. 97: 329–335, 1931.
 100. Koepchen, H. P., P. Langhorst, and H. Seller. The problem of identification of autonomic neurons in the lower brain stem. Brain Res. 87: 375–393, 1975.
 101. Koepchen, H. P., P. H. Wagner, and H. D. Lux. Über die Zusammenhänge zwischen zentraler Erregbarkeit, reflektorischem Tonus und Atemrhythmus bei der Nervösen Steuerung der Herzfrequenz. Pfluegers Arch. Gesamte Physiol. Menschen Tiere 273: 443–465, 1961.
 102. Koizumi, K., H. Seller, A. Kaufman, and C. McC. Brooks. Pattern of sympathetic discharges and their relation to baroreceptor and respiratory activity. Brain Res. 27: 281–290, 1971.
 103. Korner, P. I. Integrative neural cardiovascular control. Physiol. Rev. 51: 312–367, 1971.
 104. Kornmüller, A. E. Eine experimentelle Anästhesia der äussseren Augenmuskein am Menschen und ihre Auswirkunge. J. Psychol. Neurol. Leipzig 41: 354–366, 1931.
 105. Krogh, A., and J. Lindhard. The regulation of respiration and circulation during the initial stages of muscular work. J. Physiol. London 47: 112–136, 1913.
 106. Krueger, L. E. David Katz's der Aufbau der Tastwelt (the world of touch): a synopsis. Percept. Psychophys. 7: 337–341, 1970.
 107. Lackner, J. R. Pursuit eye movements elicited by muscle afferent information. Neurosci. Lett. 1: 25–28, 1975.
 108. Lashley, K. S. The accuracy of movement in the absence of excitation from the moving organ. Am. J. Physiol. 43: 169–194, 1917.
 109. Lassek, A. M., and E. K. Moyer. An ontogenetic study of motor deficits following dorsal brachial rhizotomy. J. Neurophysiol. 16: 247–251, 1953.
 110. Laszlo, J. I. The performance of a simple motor task with kinaesthetic sense loss. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 18: 1–8, 1966.
 111. Laszlo, J. I. Kinaesthetic and exteroceptive information in the performance of motor skills. Physiol. Behav. 2: 359–365, 1967.
 112. Laszlo, J. I. Training of fast tapping with reduction of kinaesthetic, tactile, visual and auditory sensations. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 19: 344–349, 1967.
 113. Laszlo, J. I. The role of visual and kinaesthetic cues in learning a novel skill. Aust. J. Psychol. 20: 191–196, 1968.
 114. Laszlo, J. I., and P. J. Bairstow. Accuracy of movement, peripheral feedback and efference copy. J. Mot. Behav. 3: 241–252, 1971.
 115. Laszlo, J. I., and L. C. Manning. The role of motor programming, command, and standard in the central control of skilled movement. J. Mot. Behav. 2: 111–124, 1970.
 116. Lewes, G. H. Motor‐feelings and the muscular sense. Brain 1: 14–28, 1879.
 117. Ludvigh, E. Control of ocular movements and visual interpretation of environment. Arch. Ophthalmol. 48: 442–448, 1952.
 118. Ludwig, C. Lehrbuch der Physiologie des Menschen. Leipzig: Edelmann, 1958, vol. 1, p. 359–362.
 119. Lundberg, A. Integration in the reflex pathway. In: Muscular Afferents and Motor Control (1st ed.), edited by R. Granit. New York: Wiley, 1966, p. 275–305.
 120. Mach, E. Analysis of Sensations, and the Relation of the Physical to the Psychical. New York: Dover Reprint, 1959.
 121. MacKay, D. M. The stabilization of perception during voluntary activity. In: Proc. 15th Int. Congr. Psychol., edited by W. A. Rosenblith. Amsterdam: North Holland, 1957, p. 284–285.
 122. MacKay, D. M. Perceptual stability of a stroboscopically lit visual field containing self‐luminous objects. Nature London 181: 507–508, 1958.
 123. MacKay, D. M. The visual effects of non‐redundant stimulation. Nature London 192: 739–740, 1961.
 124. MacKay, D. M. Cerebral organization and the conscious control of action. In: Brain and Conscious Experience, edited by J. C. Eccles. New York: Springer‐Verlag, 1966, p. 422–445.
 125. MacKay, D. M. Voluntary eye movements as questions. In: Cerebral Control of Eye Movements and Motion Perception, edited by J. Dichgans, and E. Bizzi. Basel: Karger, 1972, p. 369–376. [Bibl. Ophthalmol., no. 82.]
 126. MacKay, D. M. Visual stability and voluntary eye movements. In: Handbook of Sensory Physiology. Central Processing of Vision Information, edited by R. Jung. New York: Springer‐Verlag, 1973, vol. 7, pt. 3, p. 307–331.
 127. MacKay, D. M., and H. Mittelstaedt. Visual stability and motor control (reafference revisited). In: Kybernetik und Bionik: Cybernetics and Bionics, edited by W. D. Keidel, W. Handler, and M. Spreng. Munich: Oldenbourg, 1974, p. 71–79.
 128. Marsden, C. D., P. A. Merton, and H. B. Morton. Servo action in the human thumb. J. Physiol. London 257: 1–44, 1976.
 129. Marsden, C. D., J. C. Rothwell, and M. M. Traub. Changes in perceived heaviness in man after thumb anaesthesia are associated with corresponding changes in the degree of muscle activation. J. Physiol. London 280: 66P–67P, 1978.
 130. Matin, E. Saccadic suppression: a review and an analysis. Psychol. Bull. 81: 899–917, 1974.
 131. Matin, L., and E. Matin. Visual perception of direction and voluntary saccadic eye movements. In: Cerebral Control of Eye Movements and Motion Perception, edited by J. Dichgans, and E. Bizzi. Basel: Karger, 1972, p. 358–368. [Bibl. Ophthalmol., no. 82.]
 132. Matthews, P. B. C. Muscle spindles and their motor control. Physiol. Rev. 44: 219–288, 1964.
 133. Matthews, P. B. C. Mammalian Muscle Receptors and Their Central Actions. London: Arnold, 1972.
 134. Matthews, P. B. C. Muscle afferents and kinaesthesia. Br. Med. Bull. 33: 137–142, 1977.
 135. McCloskey, D. I. Differences between the senses of movement and position shown by the effects of loading and vibration of muscles in man. Brain Res. 61: 119–131, 1973.
 136. McCloskey, D. I. Kinesthetic sensibility. Physiol. Rev. 58: 763–820, 1978.
 137. McCloskey, D. I., P. Ebeling, and G. M. Goodwin. Estimation of weights and tensions and apparent involvement of a ‘sense of effort.’ Exp. Neurol. 42: 220–232, 1974.
 138. McCloskey, D. I., and S. C. Gandevia. Role of inputs from skin joints and muscles, and of corollary discharges, in human discriminatory tasks. In: Active Touch—The Mechanism of Recognition of Objects by Manipulation: A Multidisciplinary Approach, edited by G. Gordon. Oxford: Pergamon, 1978, p. 177–187.
 139. McCloskey, D. I., P. B. C. Matthews, and J. H. Mitchell. Absence of appreciable cardiovascular and respiratory responses to muscular vibration. J. Appl. Physiol. 33: 623–626, 1972.
 140. McCloskey, D. I., and T. A. G. Torda. Corollary motor discharges and kinaesthesia. Brain Res. 100: 467–470, 1975.
 141. McIntyre, A. K. Central action of impulses in muscle afferent fibres. In: Handbook of Sensory Physiology. Muscle Receptors, edited by C. C. Hunt. New York: Springer‐Verlag, 1974, vol. 3, pt. 2, p. 235–288.
 142. Melzack, R., and P. R. Bromage. Experimental phantom limbs. Exp. Neurol. 39: 261–269, 1973.
 143. Merton, P. A. The accuracy of directing the eyes and the hand in the dark. J. Physiol. London 156: 555–577, 1961.
 144. Merton, P. A. Human position sense and sense of effort. Soc. Exp. Biol. Symp. 18: 387–400, 1964.
 145. Merton, P. A. The sense of effort. In: Breathing: Hering‐Breuer Centenary Symposium, edited by R. Porter. London: Churchill, 1970, p. 207–211.
 146. Merton, P. A. How we control the contraction of our muscles. Sci. Am. 226: 30–37, 1972.
 147. Miles, F. A., and E. V. Evarts. Concepts of motor organization. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 30: 327–362, 1979.
 148. Millar, J. Joint afferent fibres responding to muscle stretch, vibration and contraction. Brain Res. 63: 380–383, 1973.
 149. Mitchell, S. W. Injuries of Nerves and Their Consequences. London: Lippincott, 1872. New York: Dover Reprint, 1965.
 150. Mittelstaedt, H. The analysis of behavior in terms of control systems. In: Group Processes, edited by B. Schaffner. Princeton, NJ: Trans. 5th Conf., 1958, p. 45–84.
 151. Moberg, E. Fingers were made before forks. Hand 4: 201–206, 1972.
 152. Mott, F. W., and C. S. Sherrington. Experiments upon the influence of sensory nerves upon movement and nutrition of the limbs. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B 57: 481–488, 1895.
 153. Mountcastle, V. B., J. C. Lynch, A. Georgopoulos, H. Sakata, and C. Acuna. Posterior parietal association cortex of the monkey: command functions for operations within extrapersonal space. J. Neurophysiol. 38: 871–908, 1975.
 154. Müller, J. Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen. Koblenz: Hölscher, 1840.
 155. Nathan, P. W., and T. A. Sears. Effects of posterior root section on the activity of some muscles in man. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 23: 10–22, 1960.
 156. Ochwadt, B., E. Bucherl, H. Kreuzer, and H. Loeschke. Beeinflussung der Atemsteigerung bei Muskelarbeit durch partilen neuromuskularen Block (Tubocurarin). Pfluegers Arch. Gesamte Physiol. Menschen Tiere 20: 613–624, 1959.
 157. Penfield, W., and E. Boldrey. Somatic motor and sensory representation in the cerebral cortex of man as studied by electrical stimulation. Brain 60: 389–443, 1937.
 158. Phillips, C. G., and R. Porter. Corticospinal Neurones. Their Role in Movement. London: Academic, 1977.
 159. Phillips, C. G., T. P. S. Powell, and M. Wiesendanger. Projection from low‐threshold muscle afferents of hand and forearm to area 3a of baboon's cortex. J. Physiol. London 217: 419–446, 1971.
 160. Provins, K. A. The effect of peripheral nerve block on the appreciation and execution of finger movements. J. Physiol. London 143: 55–67, 1958.
 161. Rashbass, C. The relationship betwen saccadic and smooth‐tracking eye movements. J. Physiol. London 159: 326–338, 1961.
 162. Riddoch, G. Phantom limbs and body shape. Brain 64: 197–222, 1941.
 163. Riggs, L. A., P. A. Merton, and H. B. Morton. Suppression of visual phosphenes during saccadic eye movements. Vision Res. 14: 997–1011, 1974.
 164. Roberts, B. L., and I. J. Russell. The activity of lateral‐line efferent neurones in stationary and swimming dogfish. J. Exp. Biol. 57: 435–448, 1972.
 165. Robinson, D. A. Oculomotor unit behavior in the monkey. J. Neurophysiol. 33: 393–404, 1970.
 166. Robinson, D. L. The mechanics of human smooth pursuit eye movement. J. Physiol. London 180: 569–591, 1965.
 167. Robinson, D. L., and C. D. Jarvis. Superior colliculus neurons studied during head and eye movements of the behaving monkey. J. Neurophysiol. 37: 533–540, 1974.
 168. Robinson, D. L., and R. H. Wurtz. Use of an extraretinal signal by monkey superior colliculus neurons to distinguish real from self‐induced stimulus movement. J. Neurophysiol. 39: 852–870, 1976.
 169. Roland, P. E. Do muscular receptors in man evoke sensations of tension and kinaesthesia? Brain Res. 99: 162–165, 1975.
 170. Roland, P. E., and H. Ladegaard‐Pedersen. A quantitative analysis of sensations of tension and kinesthesia in man. Brain 100: 671–692, 1978.
 171. Schiller, P. H., and M. Stryker. Single‐unit recording and stimulation in superior colliculus of the alert rhesus monkey. J. Neurophysiol. 35: 915–924, 1972.
 172. Schmidt, R. F. Control of the access of afferent activity to somatosensory pathways. In: Handbook of Sensory Physiology. Somatosensory Systems, edited by A. Iggo. New York: Springer‐Verlag, 1973, vol. 2, p. 151–206.
 173. Schmidt‐Vanderheyden, W., and H. P. Koepchen. Investigations into the fluctuations of proprioceptive reflexes in man. I. Fluctuations of the patellar tendon reflex and their relation to the vegetative rhythms during spontaneous respiration. Pfluegers Arch. Gesamte Physiol. Menschen Tiere 317: 56–71, 1970.
 174. Shebilske, W. L. Extraretinal information in corrective saccades and inflow vs. outflow theories of visual direction constancy. Vision Res. 16: 621–628, 1976.
 175. Sherrington, C. S. The muscular sense. In: Text‐book of Physiology, edited by E. A. Schäfer. Edinburgh: Pentland, 1900, vol. 2, p. 1002–1025.
 176. Sherrington, C. S. Observations on the sensual role of the proprioceptive nerve supply of the extrinsic ocular muscles. Brain 41: 332–343, 1918.
 177. Siebeck, R. Wahrnehmungsstörung und Storungswakrnehmung bei Augenmuskellähmungen. Von Graefes Arch. Ophthalmol. 155: 26–34, 1954.
 178. Skavenski, A. A. Inflow as a source of extraretinal eye position information. Vision Res. 12: 221–229, 1972.
 179. Skavenski, A. A., G. Haddad, and R. M. Steinman. The extraretinal signal for the visual perception of direction. Percept. Psychophys. 11: 287–290, 1972.
 180. Smith, O. A. Reflex and central mechanisms involved in the control of the heart and circulation. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 36: 93–123, 1974.
 181. Smith, S. M., H. O. Brown, J. E. P. Toman, and L. S. Goodman. The lack of cerebral effects of d‐tubocurarine. Anesthesiology 8: 1–14, 1947.
 182. Sparks, D. L. Response properties of eye movement‐related neurons in the monkey superior colliculus. Brain Res. 90: 147–152, 1975.
 183. Sperry, R. W. Effect of 180 degree rotation of the retinal field on visuomotor coordination. J. Exp. Zool. 92: 263–279, 1943.
 184. Sperry, R. W. Optic nerve regeneration with return of vision in anurans. J. Neurophysiol. 7: 57–69, 1944.
 185. Sperry, R. W. Restoration of vision after crossing of optic nerves and after contralateral transplantation of eye. J. Neurophysiol. 8: 15–28, 1945.
 186. Sperry, R. W. Patterning of central synapses in regeneration of the optic nerve in teleosts. Physiol. Zool. 21: 351–361, 1948.
 187. Sperry, R. W. Neural basis of the spontaneous optokinetic response produced by visual neural inversion. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 43: 482–489, 1950.
 188. Stein, R. B. Peripheral control of movement. Physiol. Rev. 54: 215–243, 1974.
 189. Steinbach, M. J., and D. R. Smith. Effects of strabismus surgery on spatial localization. Neurosci. Abstr. 2: 282, 1976.
 190. Stevens, J. K. The corollary discharge: is it a sense of position or a sense of space? Behav. Brain Sci. 1: 163–165, 1978.
 191. Stevens, J. K., R. C. Emerson, G. L. Gerstein, T. Kallos, G. R. Neufeld, C. E. Nichols, and A. C. Rosenquist. Paralysis of the awake human: visual perceptions. Vision Res. 16: 93–98, 1975.
 192. Stone, T. T. Phantom limb pain and cerebral pain. Relief by ablation of a portion of posterior cerebral convolution. Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry 63: 739–748, 1950.
 193. Straschill, M., and K. P. Hoffman. Activity of movement neurones of the cat's tectum opticum during spontaneous eye movements. Exp. Brain Res. 11: 318–326, 1970.
 194. Szentágothai, J., and M. A. Arbib. Conceptual models of neural organisation. Neurosci. Res. Program Bull. 12: 307–510, 1974.
 195. Taub, E., R. C. Bacon, and A. J. Berman. Acquisition of a trace conditioned avoidance response after deafferentation of the responding limb. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 59: 275–279, 1965.
 196. Taub, E., and A. J. Berman. Movement and learning in the absence of sensory feedback. In: The Neuropsychology of Spatially Oriented Behavior, edited by S. J. Freedman. Home‐wood, IL: Dorsey, 1968, p. 174–192.
 197. Taub, E., I. A. Goldberg, and P. Taub. Deafferentation in monkeys: pointing at a target without visual feedback. Exp. Neurol. 46: 178–186, 1975.
 198. Teuber, H.‐L. Perception. In: Handbook of Physiology. Neurophysiology, edited by H. W. Magoun. Washington, DC: Am. Physiol. Soc., 1960, sect. 1, vol. III, chapt. 65, p. 1595–1668.
 199. Towe, A. L. Somatosensory cortex: descending influences on ascending systems. In: Handbook of Sensory Physiology. Somatosensory Systems, edited by A. Iggo. New York: Springer‐Verlag, 1973, vol. 2, p. 701–718.
 200. Twitchell, T. E. Sensory factors in purposive movement. J. Neurophysiol. 17: 239–252, 1954.
 201. Vallbo, Å. B. Discharge patterns in human muscle afferents during isometric voluntary contractions. Acta Physiol. Scand. 80: 552–566, 1970.
 202. Vallbo, Å. B. Muscle spindle response at the onset of isometric voluntary contractions in man. Time difference between fusimotor and skeletomotor effects. J. Physiol. London 218: 405–431, 1971.
 203. Vallbo, Å. B. Human muscle spindle discharge during isometric voluntary contractions. Amplitude relations between spindle frequency and torque. Acta Physiol. Scand. 90: 319–336, 1974.
 204. Volkmann, F. C., A. M. L. Schick, and L. A. Riggs. Time course of visual inhibition during voluntary saccades. J. Opt. Soc. Am. 58: 562–569, 1968.
 205. Walls, G. L. The Vertebrate Eye and Its Adaptive Radiation. New York: Hafner, 1967, p. 181–190.
 206. Whitteridge, D. Central control of eye movements. In: Handbook of Physiology. Neurophysiology, edited by H. W. Magoun. Washington, DC: Am. Physiol. Soc., 1960, sect. 1, vol. II, chapt. 42, p. 1089–1109.
 207. Wundt, W. Vorlesungen uber Menschen und Thierseele. Leipzig, 1863. [Cited by James , p. 503.]
 208. Wurtz, R. H. Comparison of effects of eye movements and stimulus movements on striate cortex neurons of the monkey. J. Neurophysiol. 32: 987–994, 1969.
 209. Wurtz, R. H., and M. E. Goldberg. Activity of superior colliculus in behaving monkey. III. Cells discharging before eye movements. J. Neurophysiol. 35: 575–586, 1972.
 210. Zipser, B., and M. V. L. Bennett. Interaction of electrosensory and electromotor signals in lateral line lobe of a mormyrid fish. J. Neurophysiol. 39: 713–721, 1976.
 211. Zuntz, N., and J. Geppert. Ueber die Natur der normalen Atemreize und den Ort ihrer Wirkung. Pfluegers Arch. Gesamte Physiol. Menschen Tiere 38: 337–338, 1886.

Contact Editor

Submit a note to the editor about this article by filling in the form below.

* Required Field

Article Title: Corollary Discharges: Motor Commands and Perception
 

How to Cite

D. I. McCloskey. Corollary Discharges: Motor Commands and Perception. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 2: Handbook of Physiology, The Nervous System, Motor Control: 1415-1447. First published in print 1981. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp010232