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Perceptual Structures and Distributed Motor Control

Michael A. Arbib

10.1002/cphy.cp010233

Source: Supplement 2: Handbook of Physiology, The Nervous System, Motor Control

Originally published: 1981

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 The Place of Brain Theory Within Cybernetics
2 Concepts from Computer Science and Control Theory
2.1 Programs Need Not Be Stereotypes
2.2 State and Feedback in Control Theory
2.3 Serial Order in Behavior Revisited
3 Visuomotor Coordination in Frog and Toad
3.1 Maps as Control Surfaces
3.2 A Model of Frog Snapping
3.3 The Many Visual Systems
3.4 Summary
4 Perceptual and Motor Schemas
4.1 Perceptual Schemas and the Action‐Perception Cycle
4.2 Optic Flow and Control of Movement
4.3 Motor Schemas
4.4 Summary
5 Coordinated Control Programs
5.1 Feedforward
5.2 Interwoven Activation of Motor Schemas
5.3 Skill Acquisition
5.4 Summary
6 The Perspective of Artificial Intelligence
6.1 Programs and Planners
6.2 Program Synthesis and Visuomotor Coordination
6.3 Summary
7 Conclusion
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Pitts‐McCulloch scheme for reflex control of eye position via superior colliculus. Eye can only be stationary when activity in two halves of colliculus is balanced.

Adapted from Pitts and McCulloch 126
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Schematic for layered motor control system. Spatially encoded target position is transformed into appropriate sequence of motoneuron commands, with array of inputs yielding movement to “average” of encoded targets.

From Arbib 6
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Action‐perception cycle.

Adapted from Ulric Neisser, Cognition and Reality: Principles and Implications of Cognitive Psychology, copyright © 1976, with permission from W. H. Freeman and Company 108
Figure 4. Figure 4.

General form of Didday and Arbib's model, showing relationships between functions of midbrain and cortical visual systems, slide‐box, and motor pathways. Slides correspond to schemas of this chapter, with slide box corresponding to locus of a schema assemblage.

From Didday and Arbib 35 with permission from Int. J. Man‐Mach. Stud. © Academic Press Inc. (London) Ltd
Figure 5. Figure 5.

To simplify visualization of correspondence between retinal and spatial coordinates, focal point has been placed behind retina, but this is, of course, equivalent to placing retina behind focal point and then inverting coordinates. We thus have ξ = ax/z and η = by/z, where a and b are positive scale constants; ξ, horizontal coordinate, and η, vertical coordinate, of a point on planar retina; x, y, and z, horizontal, vertical body‐centered coordinates and coordinate of distance in organism's line of gaze.
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Relative motion of organism and environment; (x0, y0, Z0) is initial position of point in organism's frame of reference; (x0 — ut, y0, z0 — ut) is its position at time t, where (u, 0, w) provides the (x, y, z) components of the organism's forward velocity relative to the environment.
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Optic flow radiates from common focus of expansion (FOE) when motion of organism relative to environment is constant and forward; a, u, and w are as given in Figures 5 and 6.
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Computer output showing 2 superimposed optic flows, each radiating from its own focus of expansion. One is due to forward progression of organism; the other is due to motion of object moving toward the organism. Tail of each arrow shows initial projection of texture element on retina; 3 arrowheads indicate retinal projection of same texture element after each of 3 subsequent steps.
Figure 9. Figure 9.

For a given retinal x‐coordinate ξ(t) at time t, the closer the corresponding texture element P1 or P2 is to the organism, the larger is the velocity |ξ(t)| with which the optic element at ξ(t) moves across the retina.
Figure 10. Figure 10.

So that a controller may adapt to changes in an object's parameters, an identification algorithm monitors control signals and feedback signals, thereby providing controller with updated estimates of those parameters.
Figure 11. Figure 11.

Discrete‐activation feedforward. This is one of numerous configurations in which feedback and feedforward controls are explicitly separated. Feedforward, which is active for large errors, gets controlled system “into the right ballpark” whereas feedback fine tunes in presence of small errors. Dashed lines marked required indicate activation that is necessary if system to which they lead is to function. Solid lines indicate data flow.
Figure 12. Figure 12.

Coactivation feedforward. This is another of various configurations in which feedback and feedforward controls are explicitly separated. Feedforward continually supplies control signal that keeps output of controlled system “in the right ballpark.” Feedback provides necessary fine tuning to compensate for inaccuracy in feedforward‐controller's model of controlled system and for disturbances. Such a mode of control is appropriate only when controlled system has functional relation between maintained input and maintained output.
Figure 13. Figure 13.

Recall and recognition schemas relative to various sources of information. Recall schema controls a rapid movement; recognition schema evaluates feedback.

From Schmidt 135
Figure 14. Figure 14.

Hypothetical coordinated control program for human's visually directed reaching to grasp an object. Dashed lines, activation signals; solid lines, transfer of data.
Figure 15. Figure 15.

Pointing by patient. A: using hand on same side as intact half of cerebellum. B: using hand on same side as half of cerebellum badly damaged by gunshot wound.

From Holmes 74
Figure 16. Figure 16.

Two coordinated control programs for pointing task of Figure 15. A: 6 explicit pointing activities connected by an activation chain. B: single controller is repeatedly given updated target information.


Figure 1.

Pitts‐McCulloch scheme for reflex control of eye position via superior colliculus. Eye can only be stationary when activity in two halves of colliculus is balanced.

Adapted from Pitts and McCulloch 126


Figure 2.

Schematic for layered motor control system. Spatially encoded target position is transformed into appropriate sequence of motoneuron commands, with array of inputs yielding movement to “average” of encoded targets.

From Arbib 6


Figure 3.

Action‐perception cycle.

Adapted from Ulric Neisser, Cognition and Reality: Principles and Implications of Cognitive Psychology, copyright © 1976, with permission from W. H. Freeman and Company 108


Figure 4.

General form of Didday and Arbib's model, showing relationships between functions of midbrain and cortical visual systems, slide‐box, and motor pathways. Slides correspond to schemas of this chapter, with slide box corresponding to locus of a schema assemblage.

From Didday and Arbib 35 with permission from Int. J. Man‐Mach. Stud. © Academic Press Inc. (London) Ltd


Figure 5.

To simplify visualization of correspondence between retinal and spatial coordinates, focal point has been placed behind retina, but this is, of course, equivalent to placing retina behind focal point and then inverting coordinates. We thus have ξ = ax/z and η = by/z, where a and b are positive scale constants; ξ, horizontal coordinate, and η, vertical coordinate, of a point on planar retina; x, y, and z, horizontal, vertical body‐centered coordinates and coordinate of distance in organism's line of gaze.



Figure 6.

Relative motion of organism and environment; (x0, y0, Z0) is initial position of point in organism's frame of reference; (x0 — ut, y0, z0 — ut) is its position at time t, where (u, 0, w) provides the (x, y, z) components of the organism's forward velocity relative to the environment.



Figure 7.

Optic flow radiates from common focus of expansion (FOE) when motion of organism relative to environment is constant and forward; a, u, and w are as given in Figures 5 and 6.



Figure 8.

Computer output showing 2 superimposed optic flows, each radiating from its own focus of expansion. One is due to forward progression of organism; the other is due to motion of object moving toward the organism. Tail of each arrow shows initial projection of texture element on retina; 3 arrowheads indicate retinal projection of same texture element after each of 3 subsequent steps.



Figure 9.

For a given retinal x‐coordinate ξ(t) at time t, the closer the corresponding texture element P1 or P2 is to the organism, the larger is the velocity |ξ(t)| with which the optic element at ξ(t) moves across the retina.



Figure 10.

So that a controller may adapt to changes in an object's parameters, an identification algorithm monitors control signals and feedback signals, thereby providing controller with updated estimates of those parameters.



Figure 11.

Discrete‐activation feedforward. This is one of numerous configurations in which feedback and feedforward controls are explicitly separated. Feedforward, which is active for large errors, gets controlled system “into the right ballpark” whereas feedback fine tunes in presence of small errors. Dashed lines marked required indicate activation that is necessary if system to which they lead is to function. Solid lines indicate data flow.



Figure 12.

Coactivation feedforward. This is another of various configurations in which feedback and feedforward controls are explicitly separated. Feedforward continually supplies control signal that keeps output of controlled system “in the right ballpark.” Feedback provides necessary fine tuning to compensate for inaccuracy in feedforward‐controller's model of controlled system and for disturbances. Such a mode of control is appropriate only when controlled system has functional relation between maintained input and maintained output.



Figure 13.

Recall and recognition schemas relative to various sources of information. Recall schema controls a rapid movement; recognition schema evaluates feedback.

From Schmidt 135


Figure 14.

Hypothetical coordinated control program for human's visually directed reaching to grasp an object. Dashed lines, activation signals; solid lines, transfer of data.



Figure 15.

Pointing by patient. A: using hand on same side as intact half of cerebellum. B: using hand on same side as half of cerebellum badly damaged by gunshot wound.

From Holmes 74


Figure 16.

Two coordinated control programs for pointing task of Figure 15. A: 6 explicit pointing activities connected by an activation chain. B: single controller is repeatedly given updated target information.

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Article Title: Perceptual Structures and Distributed Motor Control
 

How to Cite

Michael A. Arbib. Perceptual Structures and Distributed Motor Control. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 2: Handbook of Physiology, The Nervous System, Motor Control: 1449-1480. First published in print 1981. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp010233