Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library

Cardiovascular Adjustments to Isometric Contractions: Static Effort

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 General Description of Cardiovascular Responses
1.1 Local Circulation
1.2 Cardiac and Systemic Vascular Responses
1.3 Baroreceptor Influence
2 Mechanisms of Control of Systemic Cardiovascular Responses
2.1 Efferent Pathway
2.2 Afferent Pathway
3 Summary: Central Command or Reflex?
References
 1. Alam, M., and F. M. Smirk. Observations in man upon a blood pressure raising reflex arising from the voluntary muscles. J. Physiol. London 89: 372–383, 1937.
 2. Alam, M., and F. M. Smirk. Observations in man on a pulse accelerating reflex from the voluntary muscles of the legs. J. Physiol. London 92: 167–177, 1938.
 3. Alam, M., and F. M. Smirk. Unilateral loss of a blood pressure raising, pulse accelerating, reflex from voluntary muscle due to a lesion of the spinal cord. Clin. Sci. 3: 247–258, 1938.
 4. Applebaum, M. L., G. L. Clifton, R. E. Coggeshall, J. A. Coulter, W. H. Vance, and W. D. Willis. Unmyelinated fibers in the sacral 3 and caudal 1 ventral roots of the cat. J. Physiol. London 256: 557–572, 1976.
 5. Asmussen, E., and E. Hansen. Über den Einfluss statischer Muskelarbeit auf Atmung und Kreislauf. Skand. Arch. Physiol. 78: 283–303, 1938.
 6. Asmussen, E., S. H. Johansen, M. Jorgensen, and M. Nielsen. On the nervous factors controlling respiration and circulation during exercise. Acta Physiol. Scand. 63: 343–350, 1965.
 7. Barcroft, H., and J. L. E. Millen. The blood flow through muscle during sustained contraction. J. Physiol. London 97: 17–31, 1939.
 8. Barcroft, H., and H. J. C. Swan. Sympathetic Control of Human Blood Vessels. London: Arnold, 1953.
 9. Bevegård, B. S., and J. T. Shepherd. Circulatory effects of stimulating the carotid stretch receptors in man at rest and during exercise. J. Clin. Invest. 45: 132–142, 1966.
 10. Bevegård, B. S., and J. T. Shepherd. Reaction in man of resistance and capacity vessels in forearm and hand to leg exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 21: 123–132, 1966.
 11. Bigland, B., and O. C. Lippold. Relationship between force, velocity and integrated electrical activity in human muscle. J. Physiol. London 123: 214–224, 1954.
 12. Bigland‐Ritchie, B., D. A. Jones, and J. J. Woods. Excitation frequency and muscle fatigue; electrical responses during human voluntary and stimulated contractions. Exp. Neurol. 64: 414–427, 1979.
 13. Bischoff, E. Einige Gewich‐ und trocken‐bestimmungen der Organe des menschilichen Körpers. A. Rationelle Med. 20: 75–118, 1863.
 14. Bishop, B. Vibratory stimulation. Part I. Neurophysiology of motor responses evoked by vibratory stimulation. Phys. Ther. 54: 1273–1282, 1974.
 15. Blair, D. A., W. E. Glover, and I. C. Roddie. Vasomotor responses in the human arm during leg exercise. Circ. Res. 9: 264–274, 1961.
 16. Bodem, G., H. L. Brannell, J. V. Weil, and C. A. Chidsey. Pharmacodynamic studies of beta‐adrenergic antagonism induced in man by propranolol and practolol. J. Clin. Invest. 52: 747–752, 1973.
 17. Bonde‐Petersen, F., A. L. Mork, and E. Nielsen. Local muscle blood flow and sustained contractions of human arm and back muscles. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 34: 43–50, 1975.
 18. Bristow, J. D., E. B. Brown, Jr, D. J. C. Cunningham, M. G. Howson, E. S. Petersen, T. G. Pickering, and P. Sleight. Effect of bicycling on the baroreflex regulation of pulse interval. Clin. Res. 28: 582–592, 1971.
 19. Clement, D. L., and J. L. Pannier. Cardiac output distribution during induced static muscular contractions in the dog. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 45: 199–207, 1980.
 20. Clement, D. L., C. L. Pelletier, and J. T. Shepherd. Role of muscular contraction in the reflex vascular responses to stimulation of muscle afferents in the dog. Circ. Res. 33: 386–392, 1973.
 21. Clement, D. L., and J. T. Shepherd. Influence of muscle afferents on cutaneous and muscle vessels in the dog. Circ. Res. 35: 177–183, 1974.
 22. Clifton, G. L., R. E. Coggeshall, W. H. Vance, and W. D. Willis. Receptive fields of unmyelinated ventral root afferent fibers in the cat. J. Physiol. London 256: 573–600, 1976.
 23. Close, R. I. Dynamic properties of mammalian skeletal muscles. Physiol. Rev. 52: 129–197, 1972.
 24. Cobb, S., and A. Forbes. Electromyographic studies of muscular fatigue in man. J. Physiol. London 65: 234–251, 1923.
 25. Coote, J. H., and W. M. Dodds. The baroreceptor reflex and the cardiovascular changes associated with sustained muscular contraction in the cat. Pfluegers Arch. 363: 167–173, 1976.
 26. Coote, J. H., S. M. Hilton, and J. F. Perez‐Gonzalez. The reflex nature of the pressor response to muscular exercise. J. Physiol. London 215: 789–804, 1971.
 27. Coote, J. H., and J. F. Perez‐Gonzalez. Response of some sympathetic neurones to volleys in various afferent nerves. J. Physiol. London 208: 261–278, 1970.
 28. Cunningham, D. J. C., E. S. Petersen, R. Peto, T. G. Pickering, and P. Sleight. Comparison of the effect of different types of exercise on the baroreflex regulation of heart rate. Acta Physiol. Scand. 86: 444–455, 1972.
 29. DeVries, H. A. Method of evaluation of muscle fatigue and endurance from electromyographic curves. Am. J. Phys. Med. 47: 125–135, 1968.
 30. Duncan, G., R. H. Johnson, and D. G. Lambie. Role of sensory nerves in the cardiovascular and respiratory changes with isometric forearm exercise in man. Clin. Sci. 60: 145–155, 1981.
 31. Eason, R. G. Electromyographic study of local and generalized muscular impairment. J. Appl. Physiol. 15: 479–482, 1960.
 32. Edwards, R. H. T., D. K. Hill, and M. McDonnell. Monothermal and intramuscular pressure measurements during isometric contractions of the human quadriceps muscle (Abstract). J. Physiol. London 224: 58P–59P, 1972.
 33. Edwards, R. H. T., and O. C. J. Lippold. The relation between force and integrated electrical activity in fatigued muscle. J. Physiol. London 132: 677–681, 1956.
 34. Edwards, R. H. T., and C. M. Wiles. Energy exchange in human skeletal muscle during isometric contraction. Circ. Res. 48, Suppl. 1: 11–17, 1981.
 35. Eklund, B., and L. Kaijser. Effect of regional α and β adrenergic blockade on blood flow in the resting forearm during contralateral isometric handgrip. J. Physiol. London 262: 39–50, 1976.
 36. Eklund, B., and L. Kaijser. Blood flow in the resting forearm during prolonged contralateral isometric handgrip at maximal effort. J. Physiol London 277: 359–366, 1978.
 37. Eklund, B., L. Kaijser, and E. Knutsson. Blood flow in resting (contralateral) arm and leg during isometric contraction. J. Physiol. London 140: 111–124, 1974.
 38. Ewing, D. J., J. B. Irving, F. Kerr, J. A. W. Wildsmith, and B. F. Clarke. Cardiovascular responses to sustained handgrip in normal subjects and in patients with diabetes mellitus: a test of autonomic function. Clin. Sci. Mol. Med. 46: 295–306, 1974.
 39. Ewing, D. J., F. Kerr, R. Leggett, and A. Murray. Interaction between cardiovascular responses to sustained handgrip and Valsalva manoeuvre, fir. Heart J. 38: 483–490, 1976.
 40. Fisher, M. L., and D. O. Nutter. Cardiovascular reflex adjustments to statis muscular contractions in the canine hindlimb. Am. J. Physiol. 226: 648–655, 1974.
 41. Fixler, D. E., J. M. Atkins, J. H. Mitchell, and L. D. Horwitz. Blood flow to respiratory, cardiac, and limb muscles in dogs during graded exercise. Am. J. Physiol. 231: 1515–1519, 1976.
 42. Fock, S., and S. Mense. Excitatory effects of 5‐hydroxytryp‐tamine histamine and potassium ions on muscular group IV afferent units: a comparison with bradykinin. Brain Res. 105: 459–469, 1976.
 43. Freund, P. R., L. B. Rowell, T. M. Murphy, S. F. Hobbs, and S. H. Butler. Blockade of the pressor response to muscle ischemia by sensory nerve block in man. Am. J. Physiol. 237 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 6): H433–H439, 1979.
 44. Freyschuss, U. Cardiovascular adjustment to somatomotor activation. Acta Physiol. Scand. 342, Suppl. 1: 1–63, 1970.
 45. Funderburk, C. F., S. G. Hipskind, R. C. Welton, and A. R. Lind. Development of and recovery from fatigue induced by static effort at various tensions. J. Appl. Physiol. 37: 392–396, 1974.
 46. Gaskell, W. H. On the changes of the blood stream in muscle through stimulation of the nerves. J. Anat. 11: 360–402, 1877.
 47. Gillespie, R. E. The relative influence of mental and muscular work on the pulse‐rate and blood pressure. J. Physiol. London 58: 425–432, 1924.
 48. Goodwin, G. M., P. I. McCloskey, and J. H. Mitchell. Cardiovascular and respiratory responses to changes in central command during isometric exercise at constant muscle tension. J. Physiol. London 226: 173–190, 1972.
 49. Gray, S. D., and N. C. Staub. Resistance to blood flow in leg muscles of dogs during tetanic isometric contraction. Am. J. Physiol. 213: 677–682, 1967.
 50. Grillner, S. Locomotion in vertebrates: central mechanisms and reflex interaction. Physiol. Rev. 55: 247–304, 1975.
 51. Grossman, W., L. P. McLaurin, S. B. Saltz, J. A. Paraskos, J. E. Dalen, and L. Dexter. Changes in the inotropic state of the left ventricle during isometric exercise, fir. Heart J. 35: 697–704, 1973.
 52. Haskell, W. L., N. M. Savin, J. S. Schroeder, E. A. Alderman, N. B. Ingles, G. T. Daughters, and E. A. Stinson. Cardiovascular responses to handgrip isometric exercise in patients following cardiac transplantation. Circ. Res. 48, Suppl. 1: 156–161, 1981.
 53. Helfant, R. H., M. A. DeVilla, and S. G. Meister. Effect of sustained isometric handgrip exercise on left ventricular performance. Circulation 44: 982–993, 1971.
 54. Hill, A. V. The pressure developed in muscle during contraction. J. Physiol. London 107: 518–526, 1948.
 55. Hník, P. Increased sensory outflow from de‐efferented muscles. Physiol. Bohemoslov 13: 405–410, 1964.
 56. Hník, P., M. Holas, I. Krekule, N. Kriz, J. Mejsner, V. Smiesko, E. Ujec, and F. Vyskočil. Work‐induced potassium changes in skeletal muscle and effluent venous blood assessed by liquid ion‐exchanger microelectrodes. Pfluegers Arch. 362: 85–94, 1976.
 57. Hník, P., O. Hudlická, J. Kučera, and R. Payne. Activation of muscle afferents by nonproprioceptive stimuli. Am. J. Physiol. 217: 1451–1457, 1969.
 58. Hodgson, H. J. F., and P. B. C. Matthews. The ineffectiveness of excitation of the primary endings of the muscle spindle by vibration as a respiratory stimulant in the decerebrate cat. J. Physiol. London 194: 555–563, 1968.
 59. Hollander, A. P., and L. N. Bouman. Cardiac acceleration in man elicited by a muscle‐heart reflex. J. Appl. Physiol. 38: 272–278, 1975.
 60. Hudlická, O., and A. Wright. The effect of vibration on blood flow in the skeletal muscle in the rabbit. Clin. Sci. Mol. Med. 55: 471–476, 1978.
 61. Humphreys, P. W., and A. R. Lind. The blood flow through active and inactive muscles of the forearm during sustained hand‐grip contractions. J. Physiol. London 166: 120–135, 1963.
 62. Johansson, J. E. Vaber die Einwirkung der Muskelthatligkeit auf die Athmung und die Hertzthätigkest. Skand. Arch. Physiol. 5: 20–66, 1894.
 63. Johnson, J. M., and L. B. Rowell. Forearm skin and muscle vascular responses to prolonged leg exercise in man. J. Appl. Physiol. 39: 920–924, 1975.
 64. Kalia, M., S. S. Mei, and F. F. Kao. Central projections from ergoreceptors (C fibers) in muscle involved in cardiopulmonary responses to static exercise. Circ. Res. 48, Suppl. 1: 48–62, 1981.
 65. Kalia, M., J. M. Senapati, B. Parida, and A. Panda. Reflex increase in ventilation by muscle receptors with nonmedullated fibers (C fibers). J. Appl. Physiol. 32: 189–193, 1972.
 66. Kao, F. F. An experimental study of the pathways involved in exercise hyperpnoea employing cross‐techniques. In: The Regulation of Human Respiration, edited by D. J. C. Cunningham and B. B. Lloyd. Philadelphia, PA: Davis, 1963, p. 461–502.
 67. Kilbom, A., and T. Brundin. Circulatory effects of isometric muscle contractions, performed separately and in combination with dynamic exercise. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 36: 7–17, 1976.
 68. Kilbom, A., and J. Persson. Cardiovascular response to combined dynamic and static exercise. Circ. Res. 48, Suppl. 1: 93–97, 1981.
 69. Kivowitz, C., W. W. Parmley, R. Donoso, H. Marcus, W. Ganz, and H. J. C. Swan. Effects of isometric exercise on cardiac performance; the grip test. Circulation 44: 994–1002, 1971.
 70. Kniffki, K. D., S. Mense, and R. F. Schmidt. Responses of group IV afferent units from skeletal muscle to stretch, contraction and chemical stimulation. Exp. Brain Res. 31: 511–522, 1978.
 71. Kniffki, K. D., S. Mense, and R. F. Schmidt. Muscle receptors with fine afferent fibers which may evoke circulatory reflexes. Circ. Res. 48, Suppl. 1: 25–31, 1981.
 72. Kogi, K., and T. Hakomada. Slowing of surface electromyogram and muscle strength in muscle fatigue. Rep. Physiol. Lab. Inst. Sci. Ind. Tokyo 60: 27–41, 1962.
 73. Kozlowski, S., Z. Brzezinska, K. Nazar, W. Kowalski, and M. Franczyk. Plasma catecholamines during sustained isometric exercise. Clin. Sci. 45: 723–731, 1973.
 74. Kozlowski, S., K. Nazar, J. Taton, J. Chovalbinska‐Moneta, and Z. Zukowska. Plasma catecholamines during sustained isometric exercise in healthy subjects and patients with essential hypertension and diabetes mellitus. In: Catecholamines and Stress, edited by E. Usdin, R. Kvetnansky, and I. J. Kopin. Oxford, UK: Pergamon, 1978, p. 531–537.
 75. Krayenbuehl, H. P., W. Rutishauser, M. Schoenbeck, and I. Amende. Evaluation of left ventricular function from isovolumic pressure measurements during isometric exercise. Am. J. Cardiol. 29: 323–330, 1972.
 76. Krogh, A. and J. Lindhard. The regulation of respiration and circulation during the initial stages of muscular work. J. Physiol. London 47: 112–136, 1913.
 77. Kumazawa, T., and K. Mizumura. Thin‐fibre receptors responding to mechanical, chemical, and thermal stimulation in the skeletal muscle of the dog. J. Physiol. London 273: 179–194, 1977.
 78. Lake, C. R., M. G. Ziegler, and I. J. Kopin. Use of plasma norepinephrine for evaluation of sympathetic neuronal function in man. Life Sci. 18: 1315–1326, 1976.
 79. Lind, A. R. Cardiovascular responses to static exercise. Circulation 41: 173–176, 1970.
 80. Lind, A. R., T. E. Dahms, C. A. Williams, and J. S. Petrofsky. The blood flow through the “resting” arm during handgrip contractions. Circ. Res. 48, Suppl. 1: 104–109, 1981.
 81. Lind, A. R., and G. W. McNicol. Circulatory responses to sustained handgrip contractions during other exercise, both rhythmic and static. J. Physiol. London 192: 595–607, 1967.
 82. Lind, A. R., and G. W. McNicol. Local and central responses to sustained contractions and the effect of free or restricted arterial inflow on post exercise hyperaemia. J. Physiol. London 192: 575–593, 1967.
 83. Lind, A. R., G. W. McNicol, R. A. Bruce, H. R. MacDonald, and K. W. Donald. The cardiovascular responses to sustained contractions of a patient with unilateral syringomyelia. Clin. Sci. 35: 45–53, 1968.
 84. Lind, A. R., G. W. McNicol, and K. W. Donald. Circulatory adjustments to sustained (static) muscular activity. In: Physiological Activity in Health and Disease, edited by K. Evang and K. L. Anderson. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 1966, p. 38–63.
 85. Lind, A. R., and J. S. Petrofsky. Amplitude of the surface electromyogram during fatiguing isometric contractions. Muscle Nerve 2: 257–264, 1979.
 86. Lind, A. R., S. R. Taylor, P. W. Humphreys, B. M. Kennelly, and K. W. Donald. The circulatory effects of sustained voluntary muscle contraction. Clin. Sci. 27: 229–244, 1964.
 87. Lind, A. R., and C. A. Williams. The control of blood flow through human forearm muscles following brief contractions. J. Physiol. London 288: 529–547, 1979.
 88. Lindström, L., R. Magnusson, and I. Petersen. Muscular fatigue and action potential conduction velocity changes studied with frequency analysis of EMG analysis. Electromyogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 10: 341–356, 1970.
 89. Liu, C. T., R. A. Huggins, and H. E. Hoff. Mechanisms of intra‐arterial K+‐induced cardiovascular and respiratory responses. Am. J. Physiol. 217: 969–973, 1962.
 90. Lloyd, A. Subjective and electromyographic assessment of isometric muscle contractions. Ergonomics 6: 685–691, 1970.
 91. Longhurst, J. C., J. H. Mitchell, and M. B. Moore. The spinal cord ventral root: an efferent pathway of the hindlimb pressor reflex in cats. J. Physiol. London 301: 467–476, 1980.
 92. Lorentsen, E. The venomotor response to static muscular exercise. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. 35: 789–794, 1975.
 93. Lorenz, R. R., and P. M. Vanhoutte. Inhibition of adrenergic neurotransmission in isolated veins of the dog by potassium ions. J. Physiol. London 246: 479–500, 1975.
 94. Ludbrook, J., I. B. Faris, J. Iannos, G. G. Jamieson, and W. J. Russel. Lack of effect of isometric hand‐grip exercise on the response of the carotid sinus baroreceptor reflex in man. Clin. Sci. Mol. Med. 55: 189–194, 1978.
 95. MacDougall, J. D., G. C. B. Elder, D. G. Sale, J. R. Moroz, and J. R. Sutton. Effects of strength training and immobilization on human muscle fibers. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 43: 25–34, 1980.
 96. Mancia, G., J. Iannos, C. G. Jamieson, R. H. Lawrence, P. R. Sherman, and J. Ludbrook. Effect of hand‐grip exercise on the carotid sinus baroreceptor reflex in man. Clin. Sci. Mol. Med. 54: 33–37, 1978.
 97. Marsden, C. D., J. C. Meadows, and H. J. F. Hodgson. Observations on the reflex response to muscle vibration in man and its voluntary control. Brain 92: 829–846, 1969.
 98. Martin, C. E., J. A. Shaver, D. F. Leon, M. E. Thompson, P. S. Reddy, and J. J. Leonard. Autonomic mechanisms in hemodynamic responses to isometric exercise. J. Clin. Invest. 54: 104–115, 1974.
 99. Mazella, H. On the pressure developed by the contraction of striated muscle and its influence on muscular circulation. Arch. Int. Physiol. 3: 334–347, 1954.
 100. McAllister, R. G. Effect of adrenergic receptor blockade on the responses to isometric handgrip: studies in normal and hypertensive subjects. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 1: 253–263, 1979.
 101. McCloskey, D. I., P. B. Matthews, and J. H. Mitchell. Absence of appreciable cardiovascular and respiratory responses to muscle vibration. J. Appl. Physiol. 33: 623–626, 1972.
 102. McCloskey, D. I., and J. H. Mitchell. Reflex cardiovascular and respiratory responses originating in exercising muscle. J. Physiol. London 224: 173–186, 1972.
 103. McCloskey, D. I., and K. A. Streatfeild. Muscular reflex stimuli to the cardiovascular system during isometric contractions of muscle groups of different mass. J. Physiol. London 250: 431–441, 1975.
 104. McDonald, H. R., R. P. Sapru, S. H. Taylor, and K. Donald. Effect of intravenous propranolol on the systemic circulatory response to sustained handgrip. Am. J. Cardiol. 18: 333–343, 1966.
 105. McGrath, M. A., and J. T. Shepherd. Inhibition of adrenergic neurotransmission in canine vascular smooth muscle by histamine: mediation by H2‐receptors. Circ. Res. 39: 566–573, 1976.
 106. Mense, S. Muskelreceptoren mit dünnen markhaltigen und marklosen afferenten Fasern: Receptive Eigenschaften und mögliche Funktion. In: Habilitationsschrift, Fachbereich Medizin. Kiel, West Germany: Christian‐Albrechts‐Universität, 1979, p. 1–186.
 107. Mense, S., and R. F. Schmidt. Activation of group IV afferent units from muscle by algesic agents. Brain Res. 72: 205–210, 1974.
 108. Milner‐Brown, H. S., and R. B. Stein. The relation between the surface electromyogram and muscular force. J. Physiol. London 246: 549–569, 1975.
 109. Mitchell, J. H., C. G. Blomqvist, A. R. Lind, B. Saltin, and J. T. Shepherd. Static (isometric) exercise: cardiovascular responses and neural control mechanisms. Circ. Res. 48, Suppl. 1: 188 –, 1981.
 110. Mitchell, J. H., F. C. Payne, B. Saltin, and B. Schibye. The role of muscle mass in the cardiovascular response to static contraction. J. Physiol. London 309: 45–54, 1980.
 111. Mitchell, J. H., B. Schibye, F. C. Payne, and B. Saltin. Response of arterial blood pressure to static exercise in relation to muscle mass, force development, and electromyographic activity. Circ. Res. 48, Suppl. 1: 70–75, 1981.
 112. Paintal, A. S. Functional analysis of group III afferent fibres of mammalian muscles. J. Physiol. London 152: 250–270, 1960.
 113. Patterson, W. D. Circulatory and respiratory changes in response to muscular exercise in man. J. Physiol. London 66: 323–345, 1928.
 114. Petrofsky, J. S., and A. R. Lind. Isometric strength, endurance, and the blood pressure and heart rate responses during isometric exercise in healthy men and women, with special reference to age and body fat content. Pfluegers Arch. 360: 49–61, 1975.
 115. Petrofsky, J. S., and A. R. Lind. The blood pressure response during isometric exercise in fast and slow twitch skeletal muscle in the cat. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 44: 223–230, 1980.
 116. Petrofsky, J. S., and A. R. Lind. The frequency components of the surface EMG during static exercise. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 43: 173–182, 1980.
 117. Petrofsky, J. S., and A. R. Lind. The influence of temperature on the amplitude and frequency components of the EMG during brief and sustained isometric contractions. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 44: 189–200, 1980.
 118. Petrofsky, J. S., C. A. Phillips, and A. R. Lind. The influence of fiber composition, recruitment order and muscle temperature on the pressor response to isometric contractions in skeletal muscle of the cat. Circ. Res. 48, Suppl. 1: 32–47, 1981.
 119. Piper, H. Elektrophysiologie menschlicher Muskeln. Berlin: Springer‐Verlag 1912, p. 126.
 120. Quinones, M. A., W. H. Gaasch, E. Waisser, H. G. Thiel, and J. K. Alexander. An analysis of the left ventricular response to isometric exercise. Am. Heart J. 88: 29–36, 1974.
 121. Reindl, A. M., R. W. Gotshall, J. A. Reinke, and J. J. Smith. Cardiovascular responses of human subjects to isometric contraction of large and small muscle groups. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 154: 171–174, 1977.
 122. Robinson, B. F., S. E. Epstein, G. D. Beiser, and E. Braunwald. Control of heart rate by the autonomic nervous system. Studies on man on the inter‐relation between baroreceptor mechanisms and exercise. Circ. Res. 19: 400–411, 1966.
 123. Rowell, L. B. What signals govern cardiovascular responses to exercise? Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 12: 307–315, 1980.
 124. Rowell, L. B., P. R. Freund, and S. F. Hobbs. Cardiovascular responses to muscle ischemia in humans. Circ. Res. 48, Suppl. 1: 37–47, 1981.
 125. Rusch, N. J., J. T. Shepherd, R. G. Webb, and P. M. Vanhoutte. Different behavior of the resistance vessels of the human calf and forearm during contralateral isometric exercise, mental stress and abnormal respiratory movements. Circ. Res. 48, Suppl. 1: 118–130, 1981.
 126. Saltin, B., G. Sjøgaard, F. A. Gaffney, and L. B. Rowell. Potassium, lactate and water fluxes in human quadriceps muscle during static contractions. Circ. Res. 48, Suppl 1: 18–24, 1981.
 127. Sannerstedt, R., and S. Julius. Systemic hemodynamics in borderline arterial hypertension: responses to static exercise before and under the influence of propranolol. Cardiovasc. Res. 6: 398–403, 1972.
 128. Sato, A., and R. F. Schmidt. Somatosympathetic reflexes: Afferent fibers, central pathways, discharge characteristics. Physiol. Rev. 53: 916–947, 1973.
 129. Seaman, R. G., R. L. Wiley, F. W. Zechman, and J. A. Goldey. Venous reactivity during static exercise (handgrip) in man. J. Appl. Physiol. 35: 858–860, 1973.
 130. Shepherd, J. T., C. G. Blomqvist, A. R. Lind, J. H. Mitchell, and B. Saltin. Static (isometric) exercise, retrospection and prospection. Circ. Res. 48, Suppl. 1: 179–188, 1981.
 131. Shepherd, J. T., and P. M. Vanhoutte. Veins and Their Control. London: Saunders, 1975, p. 269.
 132. Shubrooks, S. J., and S. D. Leverett, Jr. Effect of Valsalva maneuver on tolerance to +Gz acceleration. J. Appl. Physiol. 34: 460–466, 1973.
 133. Stacey, M. J. Free nerve ending in skeletal muscle of the cat. J. Anat. 105: 231–254, 1969.
 134. Stefadouras, M. A., W. Grossman, M. E. Shahawy, and A. C. Witham. The effects of isometric exercise on the left ventricular volume in normal man. Circulation 49: 1185–1189, 1974.
 135. Stephens, J. A., and A. Taylor. Fatigue of maintained voluntary muscle contraction in man. J. Physiol. London 220: 1–18, 1972.
 136. Tallarida, G., F. Baldoni, G. Peruzzi, G. Raimondi, M. Massaro, and M. Sangiogri. Cardiovascular and respiratory reflexes from muscles during dynamic and static exercise. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 50: 784–791, 1981.
 137. Verhaeghe, R. H., P. M. Vanhoutte, and J. T. Shepherd. Inhibition of sympathetic neurotransmission in canine blood vessels by adenosine and adenine nucleotides. Circ. Res. 40: 208–215, 1977.
 138. Watson, R. D. S., A. J. F. Page, W. A. Littler, D. H. Jones, and J. L. Reid. Plasma noradrenaline concentrations at different vascular sites during rest and isometric and dynamic exercise Clin. Sci. 57: 545–547, 1979.
 139. Wildenthal, K., D. S. Mierzwiak, N. S. Skinner, and J. H. Mitchell. Potassium‐induced cardiovascular and ventilatory reflexes from the dog hindlimb. Am. J. Physiol. 215: 542–548, 1968.
 140. Wiley, R. L., and A. R. Lind. Respiratory responses to sustained static muscular contractions in humans. Clin. Sci. 40: 221–234, 1971.
 141. Wiley, R. L., and A. R. Lind. Respiratory responses to simultaneous static and dynamic exercises in humans. Clin. Sci. Mol. Med. 49: 427–432, 1975.
 142. Williams, C. A., and A. R. Lind. α‐Adrenergic and metabolic control of forearm blood flow during intermittent hand‐grip contractions (Abstract). Physiologist 23 (4): 826, 1980.
 143. Williams, C. A., J. G. Mudd, and A. R. Lind. The forearm blood flow during intermittent hand‐grip isometric exercise. Circ. Res. 48, Suppl 1: 110–117, 1981.
 144. Zuniga, E. M., and D. G. Simons. Nonlinear relationship between averaged electromyogram potential and muscle tension in normal subjects. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 50: 264–272, 1970.

Contact Editor

Submit a note to the editor about this article by filling in the form below.

* Required Field

How to Cite

Alexander R. Lind. Cardiovascular Adjustments to Isometric Contractions: Static Effort. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 8: Handbook of Physiology, The Cardiovascular System, Peripheral Circulation and Organ Blood Flow: 947-966. First published in print 1983. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp020326