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Upper Airway Motor Systems

Donald Bartlett

10.1002/cphy.cp030208

Source: Supplement 11: Handbook of Physiology, The Respiratory System, Control of Breathing

Originally published: 1986

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Clues About Phylogeny: Upper Respiratory Tract Breathing Movements in Lower Vertebrates
2 Ontogeny: Development of Mammalian Upper Respiratory Tract Musculature
2.1 Structural Development During Intrauterine Life
2.2 Upper Airway Function During Fetal Life
2.3 Upper Airway Function at Birth
2.4 Postnatal Development
3 Adult Mammalian Upper Airway Motor Systems
3.1 Nose and Mouth
3.2 Pharynx
3.3 Larynx
4 Conclusion
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Head region of river lamprey (Lampetra fluviatilis), a primitive air breather.

From Wind 182
Figure 2. Figure 2.

African lungfish (Protopterus dolloi), a bimodal breather, taking a breath of air.

From Wind 182
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Dorsal view of pharyngeal floor of American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana). Mucous membranes have been removed, revealing laryngeal entrance and glottic musculature.

From Wind 182
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Prenatal development of human larynx. A‐E: dorsal views of pharyngeal floor in embryos from 4 wk (5 mm) to 10 wk (40 mm) of gestational age. F: sagittal section of larynx at birth.

From Arey 5
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Prenatal development of human tongue. A‐C: dorsal views of pharyngeal floor in embryos from 4 wk (6 mm) to 7 wk (15 mm) of gestational age. D: tongue and glottis at birth.

From Arey 5
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Electromyograms of diaphragm, posterior cricoarytenoid (PCA), and thyroarytenoid (TA) muscles in unanesthetized fetal lamb. IPP, intrapleural pressure. Left, regular fetal breathing movements in rapid‐eye‐movement state. Right, inspiratory effort followed by TA activity in non‐rapid‐eye‐movement state.

From Harding et al. 79
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Plethysmograph records showing breathing patterns of 2 young opossums of different ages. Upward deflections denote inspiration. Note end‐inspiratory breath‐holding pattern in younger animal and in older animal during hypoxia.

From Farber 53
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Sagittal view of human pharynx.

From Hollinshead 84
Figure 9. Figure 9.

Sagittal view of human mouth, tongue, and larynx. Tongue is drawn forward by contraction of genioglossus (labeled Tongue) and geniohyoid muscles.

From Essentials of Human Anatomy, 6th ed., by Russell Woodburne. Copyright © 1978 by Oxford Univ. Press 183
Figure 10. Figure 10.

Electromyograms of tensor and levator muscles of soft palate in a human subject. Both are active in swallowing, but only the tensor muscle participates in breathing movements.

From Hairston and Sauerland 74
Figure 11. Figure 11.

Electromyograms (EMG) of genioglossus muscle in a human subject. Note marked reduction in genioglossus activity in rapid‐eye‐movement (REM) sleep. EEG, electroencephalogram.

From Sauerland and Harper 151
Figure 12. Figure 12.

Diagram illustrating actions of certain intrinsic laryngeal muscles on glottic aperture.

From Essentials of Human Anatomy, 6th ed., by Russell Woodburne. Copyright © 1978 by Oxford Univ. Press 183
Figure 13. Figure 13.

Schematic diagram of common method of measuring laryngeal resistance in anesthetized animals.

From Bartlett et al. 15
Figure 14. Figure 14.

Translaryngeal pressure records, reflecting laryngeal resistance, with diaphragm and posterior cricoarytenoid (PCA) electromyograms in an anesthetized cat. Airflow through larynx was 4 liters/min. Top, hyperoxic base‐line state; middle, hyperoxic hypercapnia; bottom, normocapnic hypoxia. Note increased PCA activity, particularly in expiration, in lower two panels with corresponding reductions in laryngeal resistance. and , alveolar partial pressures of O2 and CO2, respectively; Plar, translaryngeal pressure.

From Bartlett 12
Figure 15. Figure 15.

Pattern of laryngeal breathing movements in a normal human subject at rest, derived from computer‐assisted averaging of data taken every 0.12 s for 10 breaths. Laryngeal aperture values were taken from motion picture frames photographed through fiberoptic laryngoscope. Ti, inspiratory time; Te, expiratory time.

From England et al. 49
Figure 16. Figure 16.

Response to lung inflation in an anesthetized cat. Upper tracing, uncalibrated record of abdominal pressure (PAB). Other tracings, diaphragm and posterior cricoarytenoid (PCA) electromyograms and record of translaryngeal pressure (Pl). First arrow, lungs were inflated with 50 ml of air. Second arrow, inflation was released. Airflow through larynx was 3.1 liters/min.

From Bartlett et al. 15
Figure 17. Figure 17.

Translaryngeal pressure records reflecting laryngeal resistance of an anesthetized cat in control, hypercapnic, and hypoxic conditions before and after vagotomy. Airflow through larynx was 4 liters/min. Before vagotomy, hypercapnia and hypoxia lower expiratory laryngeal resistance. After vagotomy, hypoxia has the opposite effect.

From Bartlett 13
Figure 18. Figure 18.

Pattern of laryngeal breathing movements in normal human subject at rest breathing air ( = 36 Torr) and during mild hypercapnia ( = 42 Torr). Plots are derived as in Fig. 15. In hypercapnia, the expiratory decrease in aperture width is much briefer than in control state. Ti, inspiratory time; Te, expiratory time.

From England and Bartlett 48
Figure 19. Figure 19.

Pattern of laryngeal breathing movements in normal human subject at rest and during moderate exercise on cycle ergometer. Plots derived as in Fig. 15. Note that aperture remains large throughout breathing cycle.

From England and Bartlett 48
Figure 20. Figure 20.

Response to expiratory unloading in an unanesthetized cat. Pt, tracheal pressure. Asterisk, a previously closed chronic tracheostomy was suddenly opened at start of mechanical expiration. Note activation of diaphragm and inhibition of posterior cricoarytenoid (PCA) muscle, compared with previous two breaths. Expiratory duration of the unloaded breath is prolonged.

From Remmers and Bartlett 142


Figure 1.

Head region of river lamprey (Lampetra fluviatilis), a primitive air breather.

From Wind 182


Figure 2.

African lungfish (Protopterus dolloi), a bimodal breather, taking a breath of air.

From Wind 182


Figure 3.

Dorsal view of pharyngeal floor of American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana). Mucous membranes have been removed, revealing laryngeal entrance and glottic musculature.

From Wind 182


Figure 4.

Prenatal development of human larynx. A‐E: dorsal views of pharyngeal floor in embryos from 4 wk (5 mm) to 10 wk (40 mm) of gestational age. F: sagittal section of larynx at birth.

From Arey 5


Figure 5.

Prenatal development of human tongue. A‐C: dorsal views of pharyngeal floor in embryos from 4 wk (6 mm) to 7 wk (15 mm) of gestational age. D: tongue and glottis at birth.

From Arey 5


Figure 6.

Electromyograms of diaphragm, posterior cricoarytenoid (PCA), and thyroarytenoid (TA) muscles in unanesthetized fetal lamb. IPP, intrapleural pressure. Left, regular fetal breathing movements in rapid‐eye‐movement state. Right, inspiratory effort followed by TA activity in non‐rapid‐eye‐movement state.

From Harding et al. 79


Figure 7.

Plethysmograph records showing breathing patterns of 2 young opossums of different ages. Upward deflections denote inspiration. Note end‐inspiratory breath‐holding pattern in younger animal and in older animal during hypoxia.

From Farber 53


Figure 8.

Sagittal view of human pharynx.

From Hollinshead 84


Figure 9.

Sagittal view of human mouth, tongue, and larynx. Tongue is drawn forward by contraction of genioglossus (labeled Tongue) and geniohyoid muscles.

From Essentials of Human Anatomy, 6th ed., by Russell Woodburne. Copyright © 1978 by Oxford Univ. Press 183


Figure 10.

Electromyograms of tensor and levator muscles of soft palate in a human subject. Both are active in swallowing, but only the tensor muscle participates in breathing movements.

From Hairston and Sauerland 74


Figure 11.

Electromyograms (EMG) of genioglossus muscle in a human subject. Note marked reduction in genioglossus activity in rapid‐eye‐movement (REM) sleep. EEG, electroencephalogram.

From Sauerland and Harper 151


Figure 12.

Diagram illustrating actions of certain intrinsic laryngeal muscles on glottic aperture.

From Essentials of Human Anatomy, 6th ed., by Russell Woodburne. Copyright © 1978 by Oxford Univ. Press 183


Figure 13.

Schematic diagram of common method of measuring laryngeal resistance in anesthetized animals.

From Bartlett et al. 15


Figure 14.

Translaryngeal pressure records, reflecting laryngeal resistance, with diaphragm and posterior cricoarytenoid (PCA) electromyograms in an anesthetized cat. Airflow through larynx was 4 liters/min. Top, hyperoxic base‐line state; middle, hyperoxic hypercapnia; bottom, normocapnic hypoxia. Note increased PCA activity, particularly in expiration, in lower two panels with corresponding reductions in laryngeal resistance. and , alveolar partial pressures of O2 and CO2, respectively; Plar, translaryngeal pressure.

From Bartlett 12


Figure 15.

Pattern of laryngeal breathing movements in a normal human subject at rest, derived from computer‐assisted averaging of data taken every 0.12 s for 10 breaths. Laryngeal aperture values were taken from motion picture frames photographed through fiberoptic laryngoscope. Ti, inspiratory time; Te, expiratory time.

From England et al. 49


Figure 16.

Response to lung inflation in an anesthetized cat. Upper tracing, uncalibrated record of abdominal pressure (PAB). Other tracings, diaphragm and posterior cricoarytenoid (PCA) electromyograms and record of translaryngeal pressure (Pl). First arrow, lungs were inflated with 50 ml of air. Second arrow, inflation was released. Airflow through larynx was 3.1 liters/min.

From Bartlett et al. 15


Figure 17.

Translaryngeal pressure records reflecting laryngeal resistance of an anesthetized cat in control, hypercapnic, and hypoxic conditions before and after vagotomy. Airflow through larynx was 4 liters/min. Before vagotomy, hypercapnia and hypoxia lower expiratory laryngeal resistance. After vagotomy, hypoxia has the opposite effect.

From Bartlett 13


Figure 18.

Pattern of laryngeal breathing movements in normal human subject at rest breathing air ( = 36 Torr) and during mild hypercapnia ( = 42 Torr). Plots are derived as in Fig. 15. In hypercapnia, the expiratory decrease in aperture width is much briefer than in control state. Ti, inspiratory time; Te, expiratory time.

From England and Bartlett 48


Figure 19.

Pattern of laryngeal breathing movements in normal human subject at rest and during moderate exercise on cycle ergometer. Plots derived as in Fig. 15. Note that aperture remains large throughout breathing cycle.

From England and Bartlett 48


Figure 20.

Response to expiratory unloading in an unanesthetized cat. Pt, tracheal pressure. Asterisk, a previously closed chronic tracheostomy was suddenly opened at start of mechanical expiration. Note activation of diaphragm and inhibition of posterior cricoarytenoid (PCA) muscle, compared with previous two breaths. Expiratory duration of the unloaded breath is prolonged.

From Remmers and Bartlett 142
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Article Title: Upper Airway Motor Systems
 

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Donald Bartlett. Upper Airway Motor Systems. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 11: Handbook of Physiology, The Respiratory System, Control of Breathing: 223-245. First published in print 1986. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp030208