Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library
For Librarians For Authors Editors About

Passive Mechanical Properties of the Chest Wall

Jeffrey C. Smith, Stephen H. Loring

10.1002/cphy.cp030325

Source: Supplement 12: Handbook of Physiology, The Respiratory System, Mechanics of Breathing

Originally published: 1986

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Arrangement of Chest Wall Surfaces
2 Models of Chest Wall Configuration
2.1 Degrees of Freedom
2.2 Configuration in Relaxed States
3 Pressures Applied to Chest Wall Surfaces
4 Elastic Characteristics of Chest Wall Structures
4.1 Pressure‐ Volume Relationships
4.2 Elastic Characteristics of the Abdominal Wall
4.3 Elastic Characteristics of the Diaphragm
4.4 Intrinsic Elastic Behavior of the Rib Cage
4.5 Properties Dependent on Time and Strain History
5 Conclusions
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Two‐dimensional graphic representations of chest wall configuration in the upright posture based on 2 degree of freedom model. Changes in chest wall configuration are described by anteroposterior (A–P) displacements (A) and by volumetric displacements (B) of rib cage and abdominal wall. Volume displacements are derived from measurements of anteroposterior displacements. Displacements are expressed as a percentage of the total displacement over the vital capacity (VC) relative to the active state at residual lung volume (RV). Solid lines and open points indicate configurations in relaxed states. Applied muscle forces or other externally imposed forces deform chest wall surfaces from the relaxed configurations. Surfaces enclosed by dashed line illustrate a range of possible configurations produced by submaximal contraction of rib cage and abdominal musculature. Constant volume isopleths (solid lines and closed points) define displacements at lung volumes indicated.

Adapted from Konno and Mead 33
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Relationships between applied pressures and volume displacements of rib cage and anterolateral abdominal wall for male subject while standing (solid lines, closed points), sitting (broken lines, closed points), and supine (solid lines, open points). Volume displacements were derived from measurements of linear displacements as lung volume was reduced over VC after a standard volume history of inflation to total lung capacity (TLC). Abdominal pressures, estimated by liquid‐filled gastric catheter‐transducer system, are those at the level of the umbilicus. Pressures applied to rib cage are pleural surface pressures estimated by measurements of esophageal pressure with a balloon‐transducer system. Triangles indicate functional residual capacity (FRC).
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Profiles of the ventral abdominal wall of a male subject illustrating equilibrium configurations in relaxed states at TLC, FRC, and RV while standing (A) and supine (B). At intermediate and low volumes in the upright posture the wall is concave above and convex below point of inflection (arrows) where the transmural pressure (Pab) is zero. In supine posture the wall is nearly flat at intermediate and high volumes. Displacements at cephalic (L1) and caudal (L2) levels are shown in Fig. 4. Heavy lines indicate costal margin and iliac crest.
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Relationships between anteroposterior diameter of abdominal cavity and transmural pressures of ventral wall as lung volume is reduced from TLC to RV in upright and supine postures. Local transmural pressures at cephalic (L1) and caudal (L2) levels were determined by liquid‐filled gastric catheter‐transducer system. Dimensions at these sites in both postures are expressed as a percentage of the maximum diameter in caudal region at TLC in upright posture. In assuming supine posture, the change in abdominal pressure distribution results in a cephalad displacement of abdominal contents and inward displacement of ventral wall; dimensions at a given site and lung volume are accordingly smaller in supine posture.
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Transdiaphragmatic pressure (A), axial force (B), and axial tension (C) developed by passive diaphragm in a male subject while standing and supine as lung volume is reduced over VC.
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Relationship between estimated values of intrinsic elastic recoil pressure of rib cage (Pel,rc) and rib cage volume displacement as lung volume is reduced over VC in a standing male subject. Also shown are values of pleural surface pressure (Ppl) estimated from esophageal pressure measurements, values of the stress (σ) applied by diaphragmatic insertions, and values of Ppl and appositional (Papp) surface pressure weighted, respectively, by fractional surface areas f1 and f2.


Figure 1.

Two‐dimensional graphic representations of chest wall configuration in the upright posture based on 2 degree of freedom model. Changes in chest wall configuration are described by anteroposterior (A–P) displacements (A) and by volumetric displacements (B) of rib cage and abdominal wall. Volume displacements are derived from measurements of anteroposterior displacements. Displacements are expressed as a percentage of the total displacement over the vital capacity (VC) relative to the active state at residual lung volume (RV). Solid lines and open points indicate configurations in relaxed states. Applied muscle forces or other externally imposed forces deform chest wall surfaces from the relaxed configurations. Surfaces enclosed by dashed line illustrate a range of possible configurations produced by submaximal contraction of rib cage and abdominal musculature. Constant volume isopleths (solid lines and closed points) define displacements at lung volumes indicated.

Adapted from Konno and Mead 33


Figure 2.

Relationships between applied pressures and volume displacements of rib cage and anterolateral abdominal wall for male subject while standing (solid lines, closed points), sitting (broken lines, closed points), and supine (solid lines, open points). Volume displacements were derived from measurements of linear displacements as lung volume was reduced over VC after a standard volume history of inflation to total lung capacity (TLC). Abdominal pressures, estimated by liquid‐filled gastric catheter‐transducer system, are those at the level of the umbilicus. Pressures applied to rib cage are pleural surface pressures estimated by measurements of esophageal pressure with a balloon‐transducer system. Triangles indicate functional residual capacity (FRC).



Figure 3.

Profiles of the ventral abdominal wall of a male subject illustrating equilibrium configurations in relaxed states at TLC, FRC, and RV while standing (A) and supine (B). At intermediate and low volumes in the upright posture the wall is concave above and convex below point of inflection (arrows) where the transmural pressure (Pab) is zero. In supine posture the wall is nearly flat at intermediate and high volumes. Displacements at cephalic (L1) and caudal (L2) levels are shown in Fig. 4. Heavy lines indicate costal margin and iliac crest.



Figure 4.

Relationships between anteroposterior diameter of abdominal cavity and transmural pressures of ventral wall as lung volume is reduced from TLC to RV in upright and supine postures. Local transmural pressures at cephalic (L1) and caudal (L2) levels were determined by liquid‐filled gastric catheter‐transducer system. Dimensions at these sites in both postures are expressed as a percentage of the maximum diameter in caudal region at TLC in upright posture. In assuming supine posture, the change in abdominal pressure distribution results in a cephalad displacement of abdominal contents and inward displacement of ventral wall; dimensions at a given site and lung volume are accordingly smaller in supine posture.



Figure 5.

Transdiaphragmatic pressure (A), axial force (B), and axial tension (C) developed by passive diaphragm in a male subject while standing and supine as lung volume is reduced over VC.



Figure 6.

Relationship between estimated values of intrinsic elastic recoil pressure of rib cage (Pel,rc) and rib cage volume displacement as lung volume is reduced over VC in a standing male subject. Also shown are values of pleural surface pressure (Ppl) estimated from esophageal pressure measurements, values of the stress (σ) applied by diaphragmatic insertions, and values of Ppl and appositional (Papp) surface pressure weighted, respectively, by fractional surface areas f1 and f2.

References
 1. Agostoni, E. Volume‐pressure relationships of the thorax and lung in the newborn. J. Appl. Physiol. 14: 909–913, 1959.
 2. Agostoni, E. Kinematics. In: The Respiratory Muscles: Mechanics and Neural Control, edited by E. J. M. Campbell, E. Agostoni, and J. Newsom Davis. London: Saunders, 1970, p. 23–47.
 3. Agostoni, E. Mechanics of the chest wall: statics. In: The Respiratory Muscles: Mechanics and Neural Control, edited by E. J. M. Campbell, E. Agostoni, and J. Newsom Davis. London: Saunders, 1970, p. 48–79.
 4. Agostoni, E. Mechanics of the pleural space. Physiol. Rev. 52: 57–128, 1972.
 5. Agostoni, E., G. Gurtner, G. Torri, and H. Rahn. Respiratory mechanics during submersion and negative‐pressure breathing. J. Appl. Physiol. 21: 251–258, 1966.
 6. Agostoni, E., and J. Mead. Statics of the respiratory system. In: Handbook of Physiology. Respiration, edited by W. O. Fenn and H. Rahn. Washington, DC: Am. Physiol. Soc., 1964, sect. 3, vol. I, chapt. 13, p. 387–409.
 7. Agostoni, E., and P. Mognoni. Deformation of the chest wall during breathing efforts. J. Appl. Physiol. 21: 1827–1832, 1966.
 8. Agostoni, E., P. Mognoni, G. Torri, and A. F. Agostoni. Static features of the passive rib cage and abdomen‐diaphragm. J. Appl. Physiol. 20: 1187–1193, 1965.
 9. Agostoni, E., P. Mognoni, G. Torri, and G. Miserocchi. Forces deforming the rib cage. Respir. Physiol. 2: 105–117, 1966.
 10. Agostoni, E., P. Mognoni, G. Torri, and F. Saracino. Relation between changes of rib cage circumference and lung volume. J. Appl. Physiol. 20: 1179–1186, 1965.
 11. Agostoni, E., and H. Rahn. Abdominal and thoracic pressures at different lung volumes. J. Appl. Physiol. 15: 1087–1092, 1960.
 12. Arora, N. S., and D. F. Rochester. Effect of body weight and muscularity on human diaphragm muscle mass, thickness, and area. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 52: 64–70, 1982.
 13. Avery, M. E., and C. D. Cook. Volume‐pressure relationships of lungs and thorax in fetal, newborn, and adult goats. J. Appl. Physiol. 16: 1034–1038, 1961.
 14. Braun, N. M. T., N. S. Arora, and D. F. Rochester. Force‐length relationship of the normal human diaphragm. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 53: 405–412, 1982.
 15. Briscoe, W. A. Lung volumes. In: Handbook of Physiology. Respiration, edited by W. O. Fenn and H. Rahn. Washington, DC: Am. Physiol. Soc., 1965, sect. 3, vol. II, chapt. 53, p. 1345–1379.
 16. Close, R. I. Dynamic properties of mammalian skeletal muscles. Physiol. Rev. 52: 129–197, 1972.
 17. D'Angelo, E. Cranio‐caudal rib cage distortion with increasing inspiratory airflow. Respir. Physiol. 44: 215–237, 1981.
 18. D'Angelo, E., G. Sant'Ambrogio, and E. Agostoni. Effect of diaphragm activity or paralysis on distribution of pleural pressure. J. Appl. Physiol. 37: 311–315, 1974.
 19. De Troyer, A., J. Bastenier, and L. Delhez. Function of respiratory muscles during partial curarization in humans. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 49: 1049–1056, 1980.
 20. De Troyer, A., and J. Bastenier‐Geens. Effects of neuromuscular blockade on respiratory mechanics in conscious man. J. Appl Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 47: 1162–1168, 1979.
 21. Duomarco, J. L., and R. Rimini. La presion intra‐abdominal en el hombre. Buenos Aires: El Ateneo, 1947.
 22. Fenn, W. O. Mechanics of respiration. Am. J. Med. 10: 77–91, 1951.
 23. Fenn, W. O. The pressure‐volume diagram of the breathing mechanism. In: Handbook of Respiratory Physiology, edited by W. M. Boothby. Randolph AFB, Texas: USAF School of Aviation Medicine, 1954, p. 1927.
 24. Fisher, J. T., and J. P. Mortola. Statics of the respiratory system in newborn mammals. Respir. Physiol. 41: 155–172, 1980.
 25. Froese, A. B., and A. C. Bryan. Effects of anesthesia and paralysis on diaphragmatic mechanics in man. Anesthesiology 41: 242–255, 1974.
 26. Fung, Y.‐C. Stress‐strain‐history relations of soft tissues in simple elongation. In: Biomechanics: Its Foundations and Objectives, edited by Y.‐C. Fung, N. Perrone, and M. Anliker. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice‐Hall, 1972, chapt. 7, p. 181–208.
 27. Grassino, A. Influence of chest wall configuration on the static and dynamic characteristics of the contracting diaphragm. In: Loaded Breathing, edited by L. D. Pengelly, A. S. Rebuck, and E. J. M. Campbell. London: Churchill Livingstone, 1974, p. 64–72.
 28. Grassino, A., M. D. Goldman, J. Mead, and T. A. Sears. Mechanics of the human diaphragm during voluntary contraction: statics. J. Appl Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 44: 829–839, 1978.
 29. Hoppin, F. G., Jr., and J. Hildebrandt. Mechanical properties of the lungs. In: Lung Biology in Health and Disease. Bioengineering Aspects of the Lung, edited by J. B. West. New York: Dekker, 1977, vol. 3, chapt. 2, p. 83–162.
 30. Jordanoglou, J. Rib movement in health, kyphoscoliosis, and ankylosing spondylitis. Thorax 24: 407–414, 1969.
 31. Jordanoglou, J. Vector analysis of rib movement. Respir. Physiol 10: 109–120, 1970.
 32. Kim, M. J., W. S. Druz, J. Danon, W. Machnach, and J. T. Sharp. Mechanics of the canine diaphragm. J. Appl. Physiol 41: 369–382, 1976.
 33. Konno, K., and J. Mead. Measurement of the separate volume changes of rib cage and abdomen during breathing. J. Appl. Physiol. 22: 407–422, 1967.
 34. Konno, K., and J. Mead. Static volume‐pressure characteristics of the rib cage and abdomen. J. Appl. Physiol. 24: 544–548, 1968.
 35. Leith, D. E. Comparative mammalian respiratory mechanics. Physiologist 19: 485–510, 1976.
 36. Leith, D. E. Comparative mammalian respiratory mechanics. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 128, Suppl.: 77–82, 1983.
 37. Loring, S. H., and J. Mead. Action of the diaphragm on the rib cage inferred from a force‐balance analysis. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 53: 756–760, 1982.
 38. Loring, S. H., J. C. Smith, and J. Mead. Independence of diaphragm length and chest wall configuration (Abstract). Physiologist 24 (4): 98, 1981.
 39. Mead, J. Mechanics of the chest wall. In: Loaded Breathing, edited by L. D. Pengelly, A. S. Rebuck, and E. J. M. Campbell. London: Churchill Livingstone, 1974, p. 35–49.
 40. Mead, J. Chest wall mechanics. In: Physiological Basis of Anesthesiology, edited by W. W. Mushin, J. W. Severinghaus, M. Tiengo, and S. Gouri. Padua, Italy: Piccin, 1976, p. 13–38.
 41. Mead, J. Functional significance of the area of apposition of diaphragm to rib cage. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 119: 31–32, 1979.
 42. Mead, J. Mechanics of the chest wall. In: Advances in Physiological Sciences. Respiration, edited by I. Hutás and L. A. Debreczeni. Budapest: Akad. Kiadò, 1981, vol. 10, p. 3–11.
 43. Mead, J., and S. H. Loring. Analysis of volume displacement and length changes of the diaphragm during breathing. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol 53: 750–755, 1982.
 44. Mead, J., and J. Milic‐Emili. Theory and methodology in respiratory mechanics with glossary of symbols. In: Handbook of Physiology. Respiration, edited by W. O. Fenn and H. Rahn. Washington, DC: Am. Physiol. Soc., 1964, sect. 3, vol. I, chapt. 11, p. 363–376.
 45. Mead, J., N. Peterson, G. Grimby, and J. Mead. Pulmonary ventilation measured by body surface movements. Science 156: 1383–1384, 1967.
 46. Mittman, C., N. H. Edelman, A. H. Norris, and N. W. Shock. Relationship between chest wall and pulmonary compliance and age. J. Appl. Physiol 20: 1211–1216, 1965.
 47. Muller, N., G. Volgyesi, L. Becker, M. H. Bryan, and A. C. Bryan. Diaphragmatic muscle tone. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 47: 279–284, 1979.
 48. Pengelly, L. D., A. M. Alderson, and J. Milic‐Emili. Mechanics of the diaphragm. J. Appl Physiol 30: 797–805, 1971.
 49. Rahn, H., A. B. Otis, L. E. Chadwick, and W. O. Fenn. The pressure‐volume diagram of the thorax and lung. Am. J. Physiol. 146: 161–178, 1946.
 50. Rigby, B. J., N. Hirvai, J. D. Spikes, and H. Eyring. The mechanical properties of rat tail tendon. J. Gen. Physiol 43: 265–283, 1959.
 51. Robertson, C. H., Jr., M. E. Bradley, and L. D. Homer. Comparison of two‐ and four‐magnetometer methods of measuring ventilation. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 49: 355–362, 1980.
 52. Rohrer, F. Der Zusammenhang der Atemkräfte und ihre Abhängigkeit vom Dehnungszustand der Atmungsorgane. Pfluegers Arch. Gesamte Physiol. Menschen Tiere 165: 419–444, 1916.
 53. Rohrer, F. Physiologie der Atembewegung. In: Handbuch der normalen und pathologischen Physiologie, edited by A. Bethe, G. V. Gergmann, G. Embden, and A. Ellinger. Berlin: Springer‐Verlag, 1925, vol. II, p. 70–127.
 54. Rohrer, F. The correlation of respiratory forces and their dependence upon the state of expansion of the respiratory organs. In: Translations in Respiratory Physiology, edited by J. B. West. Stroudsburg, PA: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, 1975, p. 67–88.
 55. Rohrer, F. The physiology of respiratory movements. In: Translations in Respiratory Physiology, edited by J. B. West. Stroudsburg, PA: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, 1975, p. 93–170.
 56. Sharp, J. T., N. B. Goldberg, W. S. Druz, and J. Danon. Relative contributions of rib cage and abdomen to breathing in normal subjects. J. Appl. Physiol. 39: 608–618, 1975.
 57. Sharp, J. T., F. N. Johnson, N. B. Goldberg, and P. Van Lith. Hysteresis and stress adaptation in the human respiratory system. J. Appl. Physiol. 23: 487–497, 1967.
 58. Stagg, D., M. Goldman, and J. Newsom Davis. Computer‐aided measurement of breath volume and time components using magnetometers. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 44: 623–633, 1978.
 59. Stahl, W. R. Scaling of respiratory variables in mammals. J. Appl. Physiol. 22: 453–460, 1967.
 60. Stromberg, D. D., and C. A. Wiederhielm. Viscoelastic description of a collagenous tissue in simple elongation. J. Appl. Physiol. 26: 857–862, 1969.
 61. Van de Woestijne, K. P. Influence of forced inflations on the creep of lungs and thorax in the dog. Respir. Physiol. 3: 78–89, 1967.
 62. Van Lith, P., F. N. Johnson, and J. T. Sharp. Respiratory elastances in relaxed and paralyzed states in normal and abnormal men. J. Appl. Physiol. 23: 475–486, 1967.
 63. Westbrook, P. R., S. E. Stubbs, A. D. Sessler, K. Rehder, and R. E. Hyatt. Effects of anesthesia and muscle paralysis on respiratory mechanics in normal man. J. Appl. Physiol. 34: 81–86, 1973.

Contact Editor

Submit a note to the editor about this article by filling in the form below.

* Required Field

Article Title: Passive Mechanical Properties of the Chest Wall
 

How to Cite

Jeffrey C. Smith, Stephen H. Loring. Passive Mechanical Properties of the Chest Wall. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 12: Handbook of Physiology, The Respiratory System, Mechanics of Breathing: 429-442. First published in print 1986. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp030325