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Breathing During Exercise

Brian J. Whipp, Richard L. Pardy

10.1002/cphy.cp030334

Source: Supplement 12: Handbook of Physiology, The Respiratory System, Mechanics of Breathing

Originally published: 1986

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Determinants of Exercise Ventilation
1.1 Alveolar Ventilation
1.2 Dead‐Space Ventilation
2 Pattern of Ventilatory Response
2.1 V.E−V.CO2 Relationship
2.2 Breathing Pattern Relationships
2.3 Mechanical Constraints on Pattern of Breathing
3 Effecting the Response
3.1 Respiratory Muscles
3.2 Power Output of Ventilatory Pump
3.3 Metabolic Cost of Breathing
3.4 Efficiency of Breathing
4 Factors Limiting Ventilatory Response
4.1 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
4.2 Highly Fit Athletes
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Alveolar ventilation (A) requirement for increasing levels of CO2 output (CO2) during exercise at various set‐point levels of arterial partial pressure of CO2 (PaCO2). Arrows represent different ventilatory costs between unloaded cycle ergometry (CO2 ∼ 0.5 liter/min) and 150 watts (CO2 ∼ 2.0 liters/min) at four different PaCO2 set points. STPD, Standard temperature and pressure, dry; BTPS, body temperature, ambient pressure, saturated with water vapor.
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Schematic representation of increased alveolar ventilation (A) required to reduce arterial partial pressure of CO2 (PaCO2) by 10 Torr (from 50 to 40, 40 to 30, and 30 to 20 Torr) to provide respiratory compensation for metabolic acidosis of exercise. Cost increases as function of both rate of CO2 output (CO2) and decreasing PaCO2 set‐point level.
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Graphic display of influence of respiratory exchange ratio (R), arterial partial pressure of CO2 (PaCO2), and dead‐space fraction of breath (VDS/VT) on ventilatory requirement (E) for exercise. For a particular O2 uptake (O2), ventilatory requirement can be significantly altered from normal response (solid arrow), with particular combination of determining variables leading to reduced (arrow a) or markedly high (arrow b) E. A, alveolar ventilation.
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Schematic representation of effects of physical fitness (for sustained endurance exercise) on ventilatory response (E) to incremental exercise. In subanaerobic‐threshold region little difference is evident between groups, but maximum E (E, max) is progressively higher the greater the maximum O2 uptake (O2). As the maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV) is largely independent of physical fitness and training, difference between MVV and E, max [i.e., breathing reserve (BR)] becomes reduced with increasing levels of fitness. Maximum sustained ventilatory capacity (MSVC), which varies from 55%–80% of MVV in normal subjects, can be increased by endurance training of respiratory muscles (R.M. Tr.) and is considered to be high in highly fit athletes (Athl.?).
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Schematic summary of rib cage (rc) and abdominal (ab) contributions to total tidal volume [expressed as percentage of vital capacity (VC)] at rest, during exercise (900 kpm/min), and immediately after exercise in normal subject. Dashed lines, end‐inspiratory and end‐expiratory volumes at rest.

From Grimby et al. 75
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Schematic summary of rib cage (rc) and abdominal (ab) contributions to tidal volume at rest and during exercise (300 and 600 kpm/min) in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Dashed lines, end‐inspiratory and end‐expiratory volumes at rest. TLC, total lung capacity; FRC, functional residual capacity; RV, residual volume.

From Grimby et al. 76
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Pressure‐volume diagrams of chest wall as a whole (Campbell diagram, upper panel) and its separate parts (rib cage, middle panels; abdomen, lower panels) during relaxation (dashed lines) and breathing at rest (closed loops). Volume changes left of relaxation line indicate inspiratory muscle activity and those right of the relaxation line indicate expiratory muscle activity. The negatively sloped clockwise loop in upper panel indicates inspiratory muscle activity that generates tidal volume. Expiration is passive (loop does not cross right of relaxation line). Both rib cage volume‐abdominal pressure (VRC‐PAB) curves (right middle and lower panels, respectively) fall on relaxation curves. Thus neither intercostal‐accessory nor abdominal muscles are active during breathing at rest. Only diaphragm (DI, middle panels) acts as a generator, producing the volume change of both rib cage and abdomen. VC, vital capacity; VL, lung volume.

From Grimby et al. 78
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Pressure‐volume diagrams of chest wall as a whole and its separate parts during relaxation (dashed lines) and during moderate (A) and heavy (B) exercise. VL, lung volume; VC, vital capacity; VT, tidal volume; f, breathing frequency; P, pressure; V, volume; RC, rib cage; DI, diaphragm; AB, abdomen.

From Grimby et al. 78
Figure 9. Figure 9.

A: relationship between respiratory muscle power and ventilation during exercise in normal subjects and during hyperventilation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). B: relationship between respiratory muscle O2 consumption and ventilation during exercise and voluntary hyperpnea in normal subjects, and during exercise and hyperventilation in patients with COPD. STPD, Standard temperature and pressure, dry.

From Pardy et al. 151
Figure 10. Figure 10.

Pressure‐volume relationships during spontaneous breathing at rest (darkened area) and maximum exercise (MAX EX, inner solid bop) and during maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV, inner dashed loop), forced vital capacity (FVC, outer solid loop), and maximum static effort (MAX STAT, outer dashed loop) maneuvers. Inner dashed‐and‐dotted line indicates the pressure of respiratory muscles (Pmus) required to balance static recoil pressure; inner dotted line indicates approximate limit beyond which a further increase in Pmus does not increase expiratory flow. VC, vital capacity.

Adapted from Campbell et al. 34
Figure 11. Figure 11.

Ventilation (E) (as percentage of maximum breathing capacity, MBC) and respiratory muscle power vs. endurance time for voluntary hyperpnea. Both E and respiratory muscle power bear an exponential (or hyperbolic) relationship to endurance time. Asymptote of E or power on its respective ordinate indicates level of either variable that can be sustained “indefinitely.” Asymptote of E on left ordinate is the maximum sustained ventilatory capacity.

Adapted from Tenney and Reese 200 and Leith and Bradley 107
Figure 12. Figure 12.

Flow‐volume curves obtained from normal subject and patient with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Spontaneous flow‐volume curves at rest (dashed lines) and maximum exercise (MAX EX, dotted lines) are compared with maximum flow‐volume curve (outer solid lines). FEV1, forced expiratory volume in one second; VC, vital capacity.

From Leaver and Pride 106
Figure 13. Figure 13.

Spontaneous flow‐volume (‐V) curves generated at three submaximum and also at maximum work rates in three subjects (BS, EW, LW) of relatively high physical fitness, with reference to their maximum flow‐volume curves (outer solid line). O2, O2 uptake; E, ventilation; VT, tidal volume; f, breathing frequency; HR, heart rate; VC, vital capacity.

From Grimby et al. 80


Figure 1.

Alveolar ventilation (A) requirement for increasing levels of CO2 output (CO2) during exercise at various set‐point levels of arterial partial pressure of CO2 (PaCO2). Arrows represent different ventilatory costs between unloaded cycle ergometry (CO2 ∼ 0.5 liter/min) and 150 watts (CO2 ∼ 2.0 liters/min) at four different PaCO2 set points. STPD, Standard temperature and pressure, dry; BTPS, body temperature, ambient pressure, saturated with water vapor.



Figure 2.

Schematic representation of increased alveolar ventilation (A) required to reduce arterial partial pressure of CO2 (PaCO2) by 10 Torr (from 50 to 40, 40 to 30, and 30 to 20 Torr) to provide respiratory compensation for metabolic acidosis of exercise. Cost increases as function of both rate of CO2 output (CO2) and decreasing PaCO2 set‐point level.



Figure 3.

Graphic display of influence of respiratory exchange ratio (R), arterial partial pressure of CO2 (PaCO2), and dead‐space fraction of breath (VDS/VT) on ventilatory requirement (E) for exercise. For a particular O2 uptake (O2), ventilatory requirement can be significantly altered from normal response (solid arrow), with particular combination of determining variables leading to reduced (arrow a) or markedly high (arrow b) E. A, alveolar ventilation.



Figure 4.

Schematic representation of effects of physical fitness (for sustained endurance exercise) on ventilatory response (E) to incremental exercise. In subanaerobic‐threshold region little difference is evident between groups, but maximum E (E, max) is progressively higher the greater the maximum O2 uptake (O2). As the maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV) is largely independent of physical fitness and training, difference between MVV and E, max [i.e., breathing reserve (BR)] becomes reduced with increasing levels of fitness. Maximum sustained ventilatory capacity (MSVC), which varies from 55%–80% of MVV in normal subjects, can be increased by endurance training of respiratory muscles (R.M. Tr.) and is considered to be high in highly fit athletes (Athl.?).



Figure 5.

Schematic summary of rib cage (rc) and abdominal (ab) contributions to total tidal volume [expressed as percentage of vital capacity (VC)] at rest, during exercise (900 kpm/min), and immediately after exercise in normal subject. Dashed lines, end‐inspiratory and end‐expiratory volumes at rest.

From Grimby et al. 75


Figure 6.

Schematic summary of rib cage (rc) and abdominal (ab) contributions to tidal volume at rest and during exercise (300 and 600 kpm/min) in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Dashed lines, end‐inspiratory and end‐expiratory volumes at rest. TLC, total lung capacity; FRC, functional residual capacity; RV, residual volume.

From Grimby et al. 76


Figure 7.

Pressure‐volume diagrams of chest wall as a whole (Campbell diagram, upper panel) and its separate parts (rib cage, middle panels; abdomen, lower panels) during relaxation (dashed lines) and breathing at rest (closed loops). Volume changes left of relaxation line indicate inspiratory muscle activity and those right of the relaxation line indicate expiratory muscle activity. The negatively sloped clockwise loop in upper panel indicates inspiratory muscle activity that generates tidal volume. Expiration is passive (loop does not cross right of relaxation line). Both rib cage volume‐abdominal pressure (VRC‐PAB) curves (right middle and lower panels, respectively) fall on relaxation curves. Thus neither intercostal‐accessory nor abdominal muscles are active during breathing at rest. Only diaphragm (DI, middle panels) acts as a generator, producing the volume change of both rib cage and abdomen. VC, vital capacity; VL, lung volume.

From Grimby et al. 78


Figure 8.

Pressure‐volume diagrams of chest wall as a whole and its separate parts during relaxation (dashed lines) and during moderate (A) and heavy (B) exercise. VL, lung volume; VC, vital capacity; VT, tidal volume; f, breathing frequency; P, pressure; V, volume; RC, rib cage; DI, diaphragm; AB, abdomen.

From Grimby et al. 78


Figure 9.

A: relationship between respiratory muscle power and ventilation during exercise in normal subjects and during hyperventilation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). B: relationship between respiratory muscle O2 consumption and ventilation during exercise and voluntary hyperpnea in normal subjects, and during exercise and hyperventilation in patients with COPD. STPD, Standard temperature and pressure, dry.

From Pardy et al. 151


Figure 10.

Pressure‐volume relationships during spontaneous breathing at rest (darkened area) and maximum exercise (MAX EX, inner solid bop) and during maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV, inner dashed loop), forced vital capacity (FVC, outer solid loop), and maximum static effort (MAX STAT, outer dashed loop) maneuvers. Inner dashed‐and‐dotted line indicates the pressure of respiratory muscles (Pmus) required to balance static recoil pressure; inner dotted line indicates approximate limit beyond which a further increase in Pmus does not increase expiratory flow. VC, vital capacity.

Adapted from Campbell et al. 34


Figure 11.

Ventilation (E) (as percentage of maximum breathing capacity, MBC) and respiratory muscle power vs. endurance time for voluntary hyperpnea. Both E and respiratory muscle power bear an exponential (or hyperbolic) relationship to endurance time. Asymptote of E or power on its respective ordinate indicates level of either variable that can be sustained “indefinitely.” Asymptote of E on left ordinate is the maximum sustained ventilatory capacity.

Adapted from Tenney and Reese 200 and Leith and Bradley 107


Figure 12.

Flow‐volume curves obtained from normal subject and patient with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Spontaneous flow‐volume curves at rest (dashed lines) and maximum exercise (MAX EX, dotted lines) are compared with maximum flow‐volume curve (outer solid lines). FEV1, forced expiratory volume in one second; VC, vital capacity.

From Leaver and Pride 106


Figure 13.

Spontaneous flow‐volume (‐V) curves generated at three submaximum and also at maximum work rates in three subjects (BS, EW, LW) of relatively high physical fitness, with reference to their maximum flow‐volume curves (outer solid line). O2, O2 uptake; E, ventilation; VT, tidal volume; f, breathing frequency; HR, heart rate; VC, vital capacity.

From Grimby et al. 80
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Article Title: Breathing During Exercise
 

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Brian J. Whipp, Richard L. Pardy. Breathing During Exercise. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 12: Handbook of Physiology, The Respiratory System, Mechanics of Breathing: 605-629. First published in print 1986. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp030334