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Ontogenetic and Adaptive Adjustments in the Thermoregulatory System

K. Brück, P. Hinckel

10.1002/cphy.cp040127

Source: Supplement 14: Handbook of Physiology, Environmental Physiology

Originally published: 1996

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Ontogenetic Adjustments in the Thermoregulatory System
1.1 Stability of Core Temperature during Ontogenesis
1.2 Changes in the Passive System and the Thermoregulatory Effort on Cold Exposure
1.3 Shift in Cutaneous Thermoregulatory Sensitivity
2 Similarities Between Thermoregulatory Peculiarities of Neonates and Thermally Acclimated Adults
2.1 Adaptive Deviations in Shivering and Sweating Threshold Temperatures
2.2 Stage of Maturity of the Thermoregulatory System at Birth
2.3 Effects of Maternal and Fetal Temperatures on the Neonate
3 Early Thermal Imprinting and Adult Temperature Acclimation
3.1 Thermal Acclimation—Early Imprinting
3.2 Acclimation vs. Maturation
3.3 Long‐Term Threshold Temperature Displacement
3.4 Short‐Term Threshold Temperature Displacement
3.5 Temperature lmprinting
3.6 Neurophysiological Correlates of Thermoadaptive Threshold Deviations
4 Effects of Hypoxia (Altitude) and Hypercapnia on Heat Balance
4.1 Acute and Chronic Hypoxia
4.2 Effects of Fetal Hypoxia on the Neonate
5 Summary
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Colonic temperatures in guinea pigs and rabbits in relation to age and ambient temperature (Ta). After data from references 20, 71.
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Metabolic responses in relation to ambient temperature and age in the guinea pig. Lower diagram: contribution of NST. From references 20, 22.
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Course of rectal temperatures and heat production in full‐term newborn infants. Ambient temperature up to the arrow 33°C, then 23°C. From reference 9.
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Relation of SMR to body mass and age in humans. From reference 11.
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Heat production necessary to maintain a given ΔT in human subjects of size 1, 2, 3. From reference 11, see text. ΔT, difference between body core (37°C) and environment (To). Size 1, adult; 2, 3 kg infant; 3, 1.5 kg infant.
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Survey of possible deviations of the thresholds for heat production and dissipation. Open circles indicate set‐point displacement. Tb, mean body temperature; Tes, esophageal temperature; SMR, standard metabolic rate.
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Minimal (basal or standard) and maximal metabolic rates in relation to ambient temperature in the neonate (N) and the adult (A).
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Left: Simultaneous responses of skin blood flow (heel) and heat production to a slight drop in mean skin temperature (Ts) evoked by a decrease in ambient temperature (Ta) from 32° to 28°C. Study in a 7 day old infant, 3,290 g. After references 9, 11, 26. Right: Relationship between Ts and heat production in adults and newborn infants and thermal conductance (peripheral blood flow) in relation to mean skin temperature in neonates and adults. Note onset of responses at higher body temperatures in the neonate 11.
Figure 9. Figure 9.

Shivering threshold curves for two groups of guinea pigs (aged 4–8 wk) reared at different environmental temperatures. Values obtained by independent changes of body surface temperature and temperature in the cervical vertebral canal. Diagram shows, for instance, that at a certain body surface temperature, which corresponds to a subcutaneous temperature of 37°C, shivering begins in warm‐adapted animals (◯) when hypothalamic temperature drops below 40°C. In cold‐adapted animals (•), however, shivering does not occur until hypothalamic temperature has reached a value slightly below 39°C. From reference 21.
Figure 10. Figure 10.

Cooling test in a young man. Shivering threshold is shifted to a lower level of mean body temperature at the second cooling phase after short rewarming (insert, right). Ta, ambient temperature; Tsk, mean skin temperature; Tb(ty), mean weighted body temperature (Tb(ty) = 0.9 X Tty + 0.1 x Tsk); Tty, tympanic temperature; EMA, electrical muscle activity from muscle latissimus dorsi; Vo2 oxygen uptake.

From V. Schmidt, K. Brück, and P. Hinckel, unpublished data.
Figure 11. Figure 11.

Connectivity model. Tentative mode of thermoafferent systems with special reference to the adult guinea pig's thermoregu latory brain stem pathways, mainly originating in two lower brain stem centers. Projections from the subcoeruleus region (SC) ascend tointegrative interneuronal networks in the posterior hypothalamus determining the thresholds of heat production mechanisms. Excit atory pathways ascend from the subcoeruleus area to the heat production effector networks. Subcoeruleus cell groups are innervatedfrom skin cold receptors (CR). Trunk skin warm receptors (WR) havebeen shown to project to 5‐HT NRM cells. Projections from the NRM ascend to the integrative hypothalamic networks controlling shiveringand descend to the dorsal horn. Parallel pathways take conventionalroutes ascending from the WR via the dorsal horn to the nucleusreticularis gigantocellularis (NRG), to the nucleus raphe dorsalis and the adjacent central gray matter (PAG), and to the thalamus and sensory cortex. For further explanation see text. Symbols:—, inhibitory connections; ——⊲, excitatory connections.


Figure 1.

Colonic temperatures in guinea pigs and rabbits in relation to age and ambient temperature (Ta). After data from references 20, 71.



Figure 2.

Metabolic responses in relation to ambient temperature and age in the guinea pig. Lower diagram: contribution of NST. From references 20, 22.



Figure 3.

Course of rectal temperatures and heat production in full‐term newborn infants. Ambient temperature up to the arrow 33°C, then 23°C. From reference 9.



Figure 4.

Relation of SMR to body mass and age in humans. From reference 11.



Figure 5.

Heat production necessary to maintain a given ΔT in human subjects of size 1, 2, 3. From reference 11, see text. ΔT, difference between body core (37°C) and environment (To). Size 1, adult; 2, 3 kg infant; 3, 1.5 kg infant.



Figure 6.

Survey of possible deviations of the thresholds for heat production and dissipation. Open circles indicate set‐point displacement. Tb, mean body temperature; Tes, esophageal temperature; SMR, standard metabolic rate.



Figure 7.

Minimal (basal or standard) and maximal metabolic rates in relation to ambient temperature in the neonate (N) and the adult (A).



Figure 8.

Left: Simultaneous responses of skin blood flow (heel) and heat production to a slight drop in mean skin temperature (Ts) evoked by a decrease in ambient temperature (Ta) from 32° to 28°C. Study in a 7 day old infant, 3,290 g. After references 9, 11, 26. Right: Relationship between Ts and heat production in adults and newborn infants and thermal conductance (peripheral blood flow) in relation to mean skin temperature in neonates and adults. Note onset of responses at higher body temperatures in the neonate 11.



Figure 9.

Shivering threshold curves for two groups of guinea pigs (aged 4–8 wk) reared at different environmental temperatures. Values obtained by independent changes of body surface temperature and temperature in the cervical vertebral canal. Diagram shows, for instance, that at a certain body surface temperature, which corresponds to a subcutaneous temperature of 37°C, shivering begins in warm‐adapted animals (◯) when hypothalamic temperature drops below 40°C. In cold‐adapted animals (•), however, shivering does not occur until hypothalamic temperature has reached a value slightly below 39°C. From reference 21.



Figure 10.

Cooling test in a young man. Shivering threshold is shifted to a lower level of mean body temperature at the second cooling phase after short rewarming (insert, right). Ta, ambient temperature; Tsk, mean skin temperature; Tb(ty), mean weighted body temperature (Tb(ty) = 0.9 X Tty + 0.1 x Tsk); Tty, tympanic temperature; EMA, electrical muscle activity from muscle latissimus dorsi; Vo2 oxygen uptake.

From V. Schmidt, K. Brück, and P. Hinckel, unpublished data.


Figure 11.

Connectivity model. Tentative mode of thermoafferent systems with special reference to the adult guinea pig's thermoregu latory brain stem pathways, mainly originating in two lower brain stem centers. Projections from the subcoeruleus region (SC) ascend tointegrative interneuronal networks in the posterior hypothalamus determining the thresholds of heat production mechanisms. Excit atory pathways ascend from the subcoeruleus area to the heat production effector networks. Subcoeruleus cell groups are innervatedfrom skin cold receptors (CR). Trunk skin warm receptors (WR) havebeen shown to project to 5‐HT NRM cells. Projections from the NRM ascend to the integrative hypothalamic networks controlling shiveringand descend to the dorsal horn. Parallel pathways take conventionalroutes ascending from the WR via the dorsal horn to the nucleusreticularis gigantocellularis (NRG), to the nucleus raphe dorsalis and the adjacent central gray matter (PAG), and to the thalamus and sensory cortex. For further explanation see text. Symbols:—, inhibitory connections; ——⊲, excitatory connections.

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Article Title: Ontogenetic and Adaptive Adjustments in the Thermoregulatory System
 

How to Cite

K. Brück, P. Hinckel. Ontogenetic and Adaptive Adjustments in the Thermoregulatory System. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 14: Handbook of Physiology, Environmental Physiology: 597-611. First published in print 1996. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp040127