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Gas Physiology in Diving

Claes E. G Lundgren, Andrea Harabin, Peter B Bennett, Hugh D Van Liew, Edward D Thalmann

10.1002/cphy.cp040243

Source: Supplement 14: Handbook of Physiology, Environmental Physiology

Originally published: 1996

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Breathing under water: Ventilatory needs
1.1 Effects of Gas Compression
1.2 CO2 Elimination
2 The need for pressure balance
2.1 Respiratory Problems
2.2 Cardiovascular Aspects
2.3 Ventilation-Perfusion Matching
3 External breathing impediment
3.1 Dyspnea and CO2 Exchange
4 Barotrauma of the lung
5 Oxygen Toxicity
5.1 Physiological Response to O2 Breathing
5.2 Toxic Effects: Pulmonary
5.3 Toxic Effects: Central Nervous System
5.4 Modulation of Toxicity
5.5 Mechanism of O2 Toxicity
6 Nitrogen narcosis
6.1 Signs and Symptoms
6.2 Causes and Mechanisms
6.3 Adaptation
7 Physics of bubble formation
7.1 Diffusion Equations
7.2 Surface Tension
7.3 Growth and Decay of a Preformed Bubble
7.4 Nucleus to Bubble
8 Decompression
Figure 1.

Actual and predicted relationships between pressure (depth) and MVV while breathing air or various helium-oxygen mixtures. Numbers on curve to the right refer to air pressure in atm that were predicted to allow the same MVV achievable with helium-oxygen mixtures at the pressures given on the ordinate.

Reproduced with permission from Lanphier and Camporesi 102
Figure 2.

Effects of inhaled gas composition and pressure on alveolar Pco2 levels recorded by Lanphier at U. S. Navy Experimental Diving Unit. Bars indicate mean values; lines above bars show highest individual values. Total gas pressure at bottom of graph; gas composition within bars. Oxygen Po2 was the same in the second, third, and fourth bars. Comparison of bars allows some conclusions (see text) about Factors apparently responsible for observed hypercapnia as tabulated in the figure.

Reproduced with permission from Lanphier and Camporesi 102
Figure 3.

Gas supply in a heavy (hard hat) diving suit. Size of the arrows illustrates the relative magnitude of water and air pressure. Air pressure in lungs is the same as air pressure in “bubble” surrounding the chest, which is determined by water pressure at chest level. Further details in text.
Figure 4.

Schematic of scuba breathing regulator. Breathing air is provided at the same pressure as water pressure acting on the membrane. A pressure differential (higher outside than inside), whether caused by inspiration or descent, will move the membrane inward and provide for inflow of compressed air.
Figure 5.

Scuba diver with breathing regulator at mouth, experiencing positive static lung loading in the head‐down position (A). Scuba diver with counterlung (breathing bag) on back is exposed to negative SLL in the prone position (B).
Figure 6.

Results of end‐tidal Pco2 recordings and dyspnea scoring (0 = no dyspnea, 2.5 very severe dyspnea) in subjects performing exercise under water at 147 kPa (15 ft, 4.5 m) (A) and 690 kPa (190 ft, 57 m (B). Low dyspnea scores are associated with high CO2 levels and vice versa.

Reproduced with permission from Warkander et al. 170
Figure 7.

Feedback loop due to interaction between surface tension and gas diffusion. Action of the loop causes explosive growth of small bubbles.

Reproduced from Van Liew 156, with permission
Figure 8.

Simulation of the time course of variables when a preexisting bubble in the body is subjected to decompression. It is assumed that surface tension and barometric pressure are the only physical forces acting on the bubble. Redrawn from Van Liew 156, with permission.
Figure 9.

Simulation of the consequences of decompression for a very small bubble or “nucleus.” Redrawn from Van Liew 156, with permission.


Figure 1.

Actual and predicted relationships between pressure (depth) and MVV while breathing air or various helium-oxygen mixtures. Numbers on curve to the right refer to air pressure in atm that were predicted to allow the same MVV achievable with helium-oxygen mixtures at the pressures given on the ordinate.

Reproduced with permission from Lanphier and Camporesi 102


Figure 2.

Effects of inhaled gas composition and pressure on alveolar Pco2 levels recorded by Lanphier at U. S. Navy Experimental Diving Unit. Bars indicate mean values; lines above bars show highest individual values. Total gas pressure at bottom of graph; gas composition within bars. Oxygen Po2 was the same in the second, third, and fourth bars. Comparison of bars allows some conclusions (see text) about Factors apparently responsible for observed hypercapnia as tabulated in the figure.

Reproduced with permission from Lanphier and Camporesi 102


Figure 3.

Gas supply in a heavy (hard hat) diving suit. Size of the arrows illustrates the relative magnitude of water and air pressure. Air pressure in lungs is the same as air pressure in “bubble” surrounding the chest, which is determined by water pressure at chest level. Further details in text.



Figure 4.

Schematic of scuba breathing regulator. Breathing air is provided at the same pressure as water pressure acting on the membrane. A pressure differential (higher outside than inside), whether caused by inspiration or descent, will move the membrane inward and provide for inflow of compressed air.



Figure 5.

Scuba diver with breathing regulator at mouth, experiencing positive static lung loading in the head‐down position (A). Scuba diver with counterlung (breathing bag) on back is exposed to negative SLL in the prone position (B).



Figure 6.

Results of end‐tidal Pco2 recordings and dyspnea scoring (0 = no dyspnea, 2.5 very severe dyspnea) in subjects performing exercise under water at 147 kPa (15 ft, 4.5 m) (A) and 690 kPa (190 ft, 57 m (B). Low dyspnea scores are associated with high CO2 levels and vice versa.

Reproduced with permission from Warkander et al. 170


Figure 7.

Feedback loop due to interaction between surface tension and gas diffusion. Action of the loop causes explosive growth of small bubbles.

Reproduced from Van Liew 156, with permission


Figure 8.

Simulation of the time course of variables when a preexisting bubble in the body is subjected to decompression. It is assumed that surface tension and barometric pressure are the only physical forces acting on the bubble. Redrawn from Van Liew 156, with permission.



Figure 9.

Simulation of the consequences of decompression for a very small bubble or “nucleus.” Redrawn from Van Liew 156, with permission.

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Article Title: Gas Physiology in Diving
 

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Claes E. G Lundgren, Andrea Harabin, Peter B Bennett, Hugh D Van Liew, Edward D Thalmann. Gas Physiology in Diving. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 14: Handbook of Physiology, Environmental Physiology: 999-1019. First published in print 1996. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp040243