Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library
For Librarians For Authors Editors About

The place of Behavior in Physiology

Michel Cabanac

10.1002/cphy.cp040267

Source: Supplement 14: Handbook of Physiology, Environmental Physiology

Originally published: 1996

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Behavior as a Physiological Response
2 The Uving Being is an Open System
2.1 Behavioral Control of Inflows
2.2 Behavioral Control of Outflows
3 The Various Behaviors
3.1 Postural Adaptation
3.2 Migration
3.3 Building Microenvironments
3.4 Operant Behavior
3.5 Parental Behavior
3.6 Behavioral Self‐Adjustment
3.7 Ultimate Behavioral Self‐Adjustment: Autostimulation of the Central Nervous System
4 Efficacy and Precision of Behavior
4.1 Short‐Term Adjustments
4.2 Long‐Term Adjustments
5 The Ranking of Priorities
5.1 Complementarity of Autonomic and Behavioral Responses: The Gain of Freedom
5.2 Conflicts of Motivation: The Behavioral Final Common Path
6 Optimal Behavior
7 Conclusions
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Relative contributions of autonomic and behavioral responses in reducing threats of body temperature variation when humans are exposed to potentially hazardous conditions of heat and cold. Left: Temperatures of environments that humans could possibly encounter. Right: Thermoregulatory responses in relation to their capabilities and ranges of internal body temperature and thermal comfort. Human freedom to move about on the earth would be limited without the behavioral response

from Hardy 34
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Living animals are analogous to the above tank. They are open systems in steady‐state equilibrium receiving a continuous inflow and losing an equal outflow of matter and energy. Black box in upper right describes the system. Block diagram below analyzes the system with its input and output faucets related by the level h, which is a derivative of inflow and an integral of outflow

from Cabanac and Russek 13
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Steady state is now equipped with a sensor (float) of the regulated variable (h), a negative feedback loop on the input faucet, and a positive feed‐forward loop on the output faucet. Both loops are behavioral

from Cabanac and Russek 13
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Calls of American white pelican embryos at the pipped egg stage when exposed in vitro to various temperatures for 10 min. Horizontal line: mean; open box: ± 1 SE; vertical line: range; N = 15 eggs, each tested under all conditions. Embryos called for parental rescue proportionally to the deviation of temperature above and below 37.8°C

from Evans 26
Figure 5. Figure 5.

A pigeon standing in an experimental chamber receives a grain when it stays on the correct side of the chamber as indicated by colored lights. The rhythm of lights on and off was variable. The figure gives the logarithm of the ratio of time spent on the left of the chamber plotted as a function of the logarithm of the ratio of number of grains received on the left to number of grains received on the right during an experimental session. Symbols give the animal's behavior. The solid line is the linear regression (equation in lower right corner). The dashed line has a slope of one and passes through the origin; it represents the performance of perfect matching. It can be seen that the bird's behavior was almost perfect

from Baum and Rachlin 4
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Left: Some regulated variables of the organism ranked from top to bottom in order of priority, defined by the time constant tolerated before correcting a perturbation. Right: Non‐exhaustive list of somatic functions. Regulation of variables on left achieved by control (modulation) of functions on right. Heavy arrows: tight control; light arrows: loose control; dashed arrows: hypothetical control. Behavioral responses participate in defense of most regulated variables of the organism

from Cabanac and Russek 13
Figure 7. Figure 7.

A pigeon stands in a climatic chamber, the temperature of which (load temperature) is imposed by the experimenter. The bird can peck at a key and thus obtain a burst of cool air. The figure gives the mean resulting body temperature and behavior of three pigeons performing in 43 sessions. A: Rate of pecking: RF, respiratory frequency. The animals’ behavior was proportional to ambient temperature and therefore directly thermoregulatory. As a result, the birds saved evaporative heat loss and did not hyperventilate while maintaining stable body temperatures (B); Ta,x, axillary temperature; Ts, dorsal skin temperature; Ta temporal mean ambient temperature

from Schmidt 81
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Two groups of Merino wethers can feed and drink at two locations separated by the various distances indicated on the abscissa; water intake, food intake, number of shuttle trips between food and water, and resulting distance walked were monitored. A: Two drinks per day; B: Three drinks every 2 days; C: one drink per day. It can be seen that the animals modulated behavior to maintain approximately constant water intake, food intake, and cost measured by walking distance

from Squires and Wilson 84
Figure 9. Figure 9.

A subject walks at a steady rate of 3 km·h−1 on a treadmill in a climactic chamber. He can adjust either the slope of the treadmill or the ambient temperature. When the subject adjusts the slope, ambient temperature is imposed by the experimenter. When the subject adjusts ambient temperature, the slope is imposed by the experimenter. Each symbol shows the subject's state at the end of a 1 h session. Results obtained when slope was imposed were not different from results when ambient temperature was imposed. This means that the subject used the degree of freedom left to him to reach, with his behavioral choice, the same physiological state. In addition, results show that with one behavioral degree of freedom the subject managed to produce external work, that is, heat production, that was inversely proportional to ambient temperature and to curb increases in both heart rate and core temperature. Behavior was therefore optimal as seen from the point of view of temperature regulation

from Cabanac and Leblanc 12
Figure 10. Figure 10.

Diagram illustrating the phenomena and disciplines of the brain and behavioral sciences. The sciences (left column) are ranked from bottom to top in order of increasing complexity of the phenomena studied (center column). The understanding of behavior is the understanding of whole organisms

from Toates 92


Figure 1.

Relative contributions of autonomic and behavioral responses in reducing threats of body temperature variation when humans are exposed to potentially hazardous conditions of heat and cold. Left: Temperatures of environments that humans could possibly encounter. Right: Thermoregulatory responses in relation to their capabilities and ranges of internal body temperature and thermal comfort. Human freedom to move about on the earth would be limited without the behavioral response

from Hardy 34


Figure 2.

Living animals are analogous to the above tank. They are open systems in steady‐state equilibrium receiving a continuous inflow and losing an equal outflow of matter and energy. Black box in upper right describes the system. Block diagram below analyzes the system with its input and output faucets related by the level h, which is a derivative of inflow and an integral of outflow

from Cabanac and Russek 13


Figure 3.

Steady state is now equipped with a sensor (float) of the regulated variable (h), a negative feedback loop on the input faucet, and a positive feed‐forward loop on the output faucet. Both loops are behavioral

from Cabanac and Russek 13


Figure 4.

Calls of American white pelican embryos at the pipped egg stage when exposed in vitro to various temperatures for 10 min. Horizontal line: mean; open box: ± 1 SE; vertical line: range; N = 15 eggs, each tested under all conditions. Embryos called for parental rescue proportionally to the deviation of temperature above and below 37.8°C

from Evans 26


Figure 5.

A pigeon standing in an experimental chamber receives a grain when it stays on the correct side of the chamber as indicated by colored lights. The rhythm of lights on and off was variable. The figure gives the logarithm of the ratio of time spent on the left of the chamber plotted as a function of the logarithm of the ratio of number of grains received on the left to number of grains received on the right during an experimental session. Symbols give the animal's behavior. The solid line is the linear regression (equation in lower right corner). The dashed line has a slope of one and passes through the origin; it represents the performance of perfect matching. It can be seen that the bird's behavior was almost perfect

from Baum and Rachlin 4


Figure 6.

Left: Some regulated variables of the organism ranked from top to bottom in order of priority, defined by the time constant tolerated before correcting a perturbation. Right: Non‐exhaustive list of somatic functions. Regulation of variables on left achieved by control (modulation) of functions on right. Heavy arrows: tight control; light arrows: loose control; dashed arrows: hypothetical control. Behavioral responses participate in defense of most regulated variables of the organism

from Cabanac and Russek 13


Figure 7.

A pigeon stands in a climatic chamber, the temperature of which (load temperature) is imposed by the experimenter. The bird can peck at a key and thus obtain a burst of cool air. The figure gives the mean resulting body temperature and behavior of three pigeons performing in 43 sessions. A: Rate of pecking: RF, respiratory frequency. The animals’ behavior was proportional to ambient temperature and therefore directly thermoregulatory. As a result, the birds saved evaporative heat loss and did not hyperventilate while maintaining stable body temperatures (B); Ta,x, axillary temperature; Ts, dorsal skin temperature; Ta temporal mean ambient temperature

from Schmidt 81


Figure 8.

Two groups of Merino wethers can feed and drink at two locations separated by the various distances indicated on the abscissa; water intake, food intake, number of shuttle trips between food and water, and resulting distance walked were monitored. A: Two drinks per day; B: Three drinks every 2 days; C: one drink per day. It can be seen that the animals modulated behavior to maintain approximately constant water intake, food intake, and cost measured by walking distance

from Squires and Wilson 84


Figure 9.

A subject walks at a steady rate of 3 km·h−1 on a treadmill in a climactic chamber. He can adjust either the slope of the treadmill or the ambient temperature. When the subject adjusts the slope, ambient temperature is imposed by the experimenter. When the subject adjusts ambient temperature, the slope is imposed by the experimenter. Each symbol shows the subject's state at the end of a 1 h session. Results obtained when slope was imposed were not different from results when ambient temperature was imposed. This means that the subject used the degree of freedom left to him to reach, with his behavioral choice, the same physiological state. In addition, results show that with one behavioral degree of freedom the subject managed to produce external work, that is, heat production, that was inversely proportional to ambient temperature and to curb increases in both heart rate and core temperature. Behavior was therefore optimal as seen from the point of view of temperature regulation

from Cabanac and Leblanc 12


Figure 10.

Diagram illustrating the phenomena and disciplines of the brain and behavioral sciences. The sciences (left column) are ranked from bottom to top in order of increasing complexity of the phenomena studied (center column). The understanding of behavior is the understanding of whole organisms

from Toates 92
References
 1. Amit, Z., and Z. H. Galina. Stress‐induced analgesia: adaptive pain suppression. Physiol. Rev. 66: 1091–1120, 1986.
 2. Arieli, R., A. Ar, and A. Shkolnik. Metabolic responses of a fossorial rodent (Spalax ehrenbergi) to simulated burrow conditions. Physiol. Zool. 50: 61–75, 1977.
 3. Baile, C. A., C. L. McLaughlin, and M. A. Della‐Fera. Role of cholecystokinin and opioid peptides in control of food intake. Physiol. Rev. 66: 172–234, 1986.
 4. Baum, W. M., and H. C. Rachlin. Choice as time allocation. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 12: 861–874, 1969.
 5. Bernard, C. Leçons de Physiologie Expérimentale Appliquée à la Médecine. Cours du Semestre d'Été, 1855. Paris: Baillière, 1855, vol. II. p. 49–52.
 6. Berstein, I. L., and S. Borson. Learned food aversion: a component of anorexia syndromes. Psychol. Rev. 93: 462–472, 1986.
 7. Bligh, J. Temperature Regulation in Mammals and Other Vertebrates. Amsterdam: North Holland, 1973, p. 436.
 8. Blix, A. S., and J. B. Steen. Temperature regulation in newborn polar homeotherms. Physiol. Rev. 59: 285–304, 1979.
 9. Brück, K. Which environmental temperature does the premature infant prefer? Pediatrics 41: 1027–1030, 1968.
 10. Bunge, M. From neuron to mind. News in Physiological Science 4: 206–209, 1989.
 11. Cabanac, M. Thermoregulatory behavior. In: Essays on Temperature Regulation, edited by J. Bligh and R. Moore. Amsterdam: North Holland, 1972, p. 19–36.
 12. Cabanac, M., and J. Leblanc. Physiological conflict in humans: fatigue vs. cold discomfort. Am. J. Physiol. 244 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 15): R621–R628, 1983.
 13. Cabanac, M., and M. Russek. Régulation et Controle en Biologie. Québec: Presses de l'Université Laval, 1982, p. 242.
 14. Candas, V., J. P. Libert, J. J. Vogt, J. Ehrhart, and A. Muzet. Body temperature during sleep under different conditions. In: Proc. Int. Indoor Climate Symp., edited by O. Fanger. København, 1978.
 15. Cannon, W. B. The Wisdom of the Body. New York: Norton, 1932, p. 101.
 16. Collier, G. The economics of hunger, thirst, satiety, and regulation. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 575: 136–154, 1989.
 17. Collier, G., and C. K. Rovee‐Collier. A comparative analysis of optimal foraging behavior: laboratory simulations. In: Foraging Behavior, edited by A. C. Kamil and T. D. Sargent. New York: Garland STPM 1981, p. 39–76.
 18. Corbit, J. D. Behavioral regulation of body temperature. In: Physiological and Behavioral Temperature Regulation, edited by J. D. Hardy, A. P. Gagge, and J. A. J. Stolwijk. Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1970, p. 777–801.
 19. Corbit, J. D. Voluntary control of hypothalamic temperature. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 83: 394–411, 1973.
 20. Courtenay, S. C., and M. H. A. Keeleyside. Wriggler‐hanging: a response to hypoxia by brood‐rearing Herotilapia multispinosa (Teleostei, Cichlidae). Behaviour 85: 183–197, 1983.
 21. Darwin, C. , Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965, p. 372.
 22. Dienstbier, R. A. Arousal and physiological toughness: implications for mental and physical health. Psychol. Rev. 96: 84–100, 1989.
 23. Eikelboom, R., and J. Stewart. Conditioning of drug‐induced physiological responses. Psychol. Rev. 89: 507–528, 1982.
 24. Emlen, J. M. The role of time and energy in food preference. Am. Natr. 100: 611–617, 1966.
 25. Engel, B. T., and N. Schneiderman. Operant conditioning and the modulation of cardiovascular function. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 46: 199–210, 1984.
 26. Evans, R. M. Vocal regulation of temperature by avian embryos: a laboratory study with pipped eggs of American white pelican. Anim. Behav. 40: 969–979, 1990.
 27. Fantino, M., and M. Cabanac. Body weight regulation with a proportional hoarding response in the rat. Physiol. Behav. 24: 939–942, 1980.
 28. Frank, R. A., W. S. Pritchard, and R. M. Stutz. Food versus intracranial self‐stimulation: failure of limited access self depriving rats to self‐deprive in a continuous access paradigm. Behav. Neural Biol. 33: 503–508, 1981.
 29. Galef, B. G., Jr. A contrarian view of the wisdom of the body as it relates to dietary self‐selection. Psychol. Rev. 98: 218–223, 1991.
 30. Gallistel, C. R. Determining the quantitative characteristics of a reward pathway. In: Quantitative Analyses of Behavior. Biological Determinants of Reinforcement, edited by M. L. Commons, R. M. Chuch, J. R. Stellar, and A. R. Wagner. Hillsdale, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum, 1988, vol. 7, p. 1–30.
 31. Goldsmith, R., R. Hampton, and I. F. G. Hampton. Nocturnal microclimate of man. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 194: 32–33, 1968.
 32. Grassé, P. P., and R. Poisson. Précis de Sciences Biologiques. Zoologie I. Paris: Masson, 1961, p. 919.
 33. Hardy, J. D. The set‐point concept in physiological temperature regulation. In: Physiological Controls and Regulations, edited by W. S. Yamamoto and J. R. Brobeck. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1965, p. 98–116.
 34. Hardy, J. D. Thermal comfort and health. A.S.H.R.A.E. J. 43–51, February 1971.
 35. Hardy, J. D., and J. A. J. Stolwijk. Regulation and control in physiology. In: Medical Physiology (12th ed.), edited by V. B. Mountcastle. St. Louis: Mosby, 1968, p. 591–610.
 36. Hazelhoff, E. H. Ventilation in a bee‐hive during summer. Physiol. Comp. Œcol. 3: 343–364, 1954.
 37. Helmoltz, H. Die Tatsachen in der Wahrnemung. Berlin: Hirschwald, 1879, p. 112.
 38. Hervey, G. R. Regulation of energy balance. Nature 223: 629–631, 1969.
 39. Hess, W. R. Hypothalamus und die Zentren des autonomen Nervensystems: Physiologie. Arch. Psychiatr. Nervenkr. 104: 548–557, 1936.
 40. Huang, M. H., J. Ebey, and S. Wolf. Manipulating the QT interval of the ECG by cognitive effort. Pavl. J. Biol. Sci. 24: 102–108, 1989.
 41. Ingram, D. L., and K. F. Legge. The thermoregulatory behavior of young pigs in a natural environment. Physiol. Behav. 5: 981–987, 1970.
 42. Ingram, D. L., and L. E. Mount. Man and Animals in Hot Environments. Berlin: Springer‐Verlag, 1975, p. 185.
 43. Ishikawa, Y. H., T. Tanaka, T. Nakayama, and K. Kanosue. Competition between lever pressing behavior and thermoregulatory behavior on exposure to heat in intracranial self stimulating rats. Physiol. Behav. 42: 599–603, 1988.
 44. I.U.P.S. Commission for thermal physiology. Glossary of terms for thermal physiology. Pflügers Arch. 410: 410–587, 1987.
 45. Johnson, K. G., and M. Cabanac. Homeostatic competition between food intake and temperature regulation in rats. Physiol. Behav. 28: 675–679, 1982.
 46. Johnson, K. G., and R. Strack. Adaptive behaviour of laboratory rats feeding in hot conditions. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 94A: 69–72, 1989.
 47. Koob, G. F., and F. E. Bloom. Behavioral effects of neuropeptides: endorphins and vasopressin. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 44: 571–582, 1982.
 48. Kraly, F. S. Physiology of drinking elicited by eating. Psychol. Rev. 91: 478–490, 1984.
 49. Krebs, J. R., and N. B. Davies. An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer 1981, p. 292.
 50. Kung, C., and Y. Saimi. The physiological basis of taxes in Paramecium. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 44: 519–534, 1982.
 51. Lang, P. J. Learned control of human heart rate in a computer directed environment. In: Cardiovascular Psychophysiology: Current Issues in Response Mechanisms, Biofeedback, and Methodology. edited by P. A. Obrist, A. H. Black, J. Brener, and L. V. Dicara. Chicago: Aldipe, 1974, p. 392–405.
 52. Langlois, P. La régulation thermique des poikilothermes. J. Physiol. (Paris) 2: 249–256, 1902.
 53. Lea, S. E. G., R. M. Tarpy, and P. Webley. The Individual in the Economy, a Survey of Economic Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, p. 627.
 54. Leblanc, J. Interactions between adaptation to cold and to altitude. In: Matsumoto Int. Symp. High‐Altitude Med. Sci., edited by G. Ueda, Matsumoto, Japan: Shinshu University Press, p. 475–481, 1992.
 55. Lemagnen, J. Body energy balance and food intake: a neuroendocrine regulatory mechanism. Physiol. Rev. 63: 314–386, 1983.
 56. Lemaho, Y. The emperor penguin: a strategy to live and breed in the cold. Am. Sci. 65: 680–693, 1977.
 57. Lester, N. P. The “feed drink” decision. Behaviour 89: 200–219, 1984.
 58. Lindauer, M. Die Temperaturregulierung der Bienen bei Stocküberhitzung. Naturwissenschaften 38: 308–309, 1951.
 59. MacArthur, R. H., and E. R. Pianka. On the optimal use of a patching environment. Am. Nat. 100: 603–609, 1966.
 60. Malechek, J. C., and B. S. Smith. Behavior of range cows in response to winter weather. J. Range Manage. 29: 9–12, 1976.
 61. Mason, J. W., J. T. Maher, L. H. Hartley, E. H. Mougey, M. J. Perlow, and G. J. Jones. Selectivity of corticosteroid and catecholamine response to various natural stimuli. In: Psychopathology of Human Adaptation. edited by G. Sarban. New York: Plenum, 1976.
 62. McFarland, D. J. Decision making in animals. Nature 269: 15–21, 1977.
 63. McFarland, D. J., and A. Houston. Quantitative Ethology, the State Space Approach. Boston: Pitman, 1981, p. 204.
 64. McFarland, D. J., and R. M. Sibly. The behavioural final common path. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 270: 265–293, 1975.
 65. Meyer, D. E., R. A. Abrams, S. Kornblum, C. E. Wright, and J. E. K. Smith. Optimality in human motor performance: ideal control of rapid aimed movements. Psychol. Rev. 95: 340–370, 1988.
 66. Miller, N. E. Learning of visceral and glandular responses. Science 163: 434–445, 1969.
 67. Mrosovsky, N. Rheostasis, the Physiology of Change. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990, p. 183.
 68. Müller, J. Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen für Vorlesungen. Coblenz: Hölscher, 1834–1840, 2 vol.
 69. Murakami, N., and K. Kinoshita. Spontaneous activity and heat avoidance of mice. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respir. Environ. Exerc. Physiol. 43: 573–576, 1977.
 70. Nicolaidis, S., and N. Rowland. Long‐term self intravenous drinking in the rat. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 87: 1–15, 1974.
 71. Olds, J. Physiological mechanism of reward. In: Nebraska Symp. Motivation. edited by M. R. Jones. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1955.
 72. Olds, J., A. Yuwiler, M. E. Olds, and C. Yun. Neurohumors in hypothalamic substrates of reward. Am. J. Physiol. 207: 242–254, 1964.
 73. Ostheim, J. Coping with food‐limited conditions: feeding behavior, temperature preference, and nocturnal hypothermia in pigeons. Physiol. Behav. 51: 353–361, 1992.
 74. Pavlov, I. P. Essential Works of Pavlov, edited by M. Kaplan. Toronto: Bantam, 1966, p. 392.
 75. Perrigo, G. Breeding and feeding strategies in deer mice and house mice when females are challenged to work for their food. Anim. Behav. 35: 1298–1316, 1987.
 76. Phillips, A. G., C. W. Morgan, and G. J. Mogenson. Changes in self‐stimulation as a function of incentive of alternative rewards. Can. J. Psychol. 24: 289–297, 1970.
 77. Poulos, C. X., and H. Cappel. Homeostatic theory of drug tolerance: a general model of physiological adaptation. Psychol. Rev. 98: 390–408, 1991.
 78. Rautenberg, W., B. May, and G. Arabin. Behavioral and autonomic temperature regulation in competition with food intake and water balance of pigeons. Pflügers Arch. 384: 253–260, 1980.
 79. Rowland, N. Interplay of behavioral and physiological mechanisms in adaptation. Handbook of Physiology. Adaptation to the Environment, edited by D. B. Dill and E. F. Adolph. Washington, DC: Am. Physiol. Soc., 1964, sect. 4.
 80. Rozin, P., and A. E. Fallon. A perspective on disgust. Psychol. Rev. 94: 23–41, 1987.
 81. Schmidt, I. Interactions of behavioral and autonomic thermoregulation in heat stressed pigeons. Pflügers Arch. 374: 47–55, 1978.
 82. Scholander, P. F., N. Anderson, J. Krog, F. V. Lorentzen, and J. Steen. Critical temperature in Lapps. J. Appl. Physiol. 10: 231–234, 1957.
 83. Shkolnik, A. The black bedouin goat. Bielefelder Ökol. Beitr. 6: 53–60, 1992.
 84. Squires, V. R., and A. D. Wilson. Distance between food and water supply and its effects on drinking frequency, and food and water intake of Merino and Border Leicester sheep. Aust. J. Agricult. Res. 22: 283–290, 1971.
 85. Stellar, E. The physiology of motivation. Psychol. Rev. 61: 5–22, 1954.
 86. Sterman, M. B., and L. Friar. Suppression of seizures in an epileptic following sensorimotor EEG feedback training. EEG Clin. Neurophysiol. 33: 89–95, 1972.
 87. Stricker, E. M., and J. G. Verbalis. Hormones and behavior: the biology of thirst and sodium appetite. Am. Sci. 76: 261–267, 1988.
 88. Stussi, T. Thermogénèse de l'Abeille et Ses Rapports avec le Niveau Thermique de la Ruche. Lyon: Univ. of Lyon, 1967. Thèse Doctorat d'État.
 89. Stutz, R. M., R. R. Rossi, and A. M. Bowring. Competition between food and rewarding brain shock. Physiol. Behav. 7: 753–757, 1971.
 90. Thorndike, E. L. The fundamentals of learning. New York: AMS Press, 1971, p. 638.
 91. Tinbergen, N. The Study of Instinct. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1951, p. 228.
 92. Toates, F. Biological Foundations of Behaviour. Milton Keynes, UK: Open University Press, 1986, p. 130.
 93. Trowill, J. A. Instrumental conditioning of the heart rate in the curarized rat. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 63: 7–11, 1967.
 94. Vander Wall, S. B. Food Hoarding in Animals. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990, p. 445.
 95. Van Iersel, J. J. A. An analysis of the parental behavior of the male three‐spined stickleback (Gastrosteus aculeatus L.). Behav. Suppl. 3: 1–159, 1953.
 96. Vogel, S., C. P. Elington, Jr., and D. L. Kilgore. Wind‐induced ventilation of the burrow of the prairie dog Cynomys ludovicianus. J. Comp. Physiol. 85: 1–14, 1973.
 97. Watson, J. B. Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychol. Rev. 20: 158–177, 1913.
 98. Weiss, B., and V. G. Laties. Behavioral thermoregulation. Science 133: 1338–1344, 1961.
 99. Weiss, T., and B. T. Engel. Operant conditioning of heart rate in patients with premature ventricular contractions. Psychosom. Med. 33: 301–321, 1971.
 100. Wise, R. A., and D. C. Hoffman. Localization of drug reward mechanisms by intracranial injections. Synapse 10: 247–263, 1992.
 101. Wood, S. C. Interactions between hypoxia and hypothermia. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 53: 71–85, 1991.
 102. Woods, S. C. The eating paradox: how we tolerate food. Psychol. Rev. 98: 488–505, 1991.
 103. Yagil, R. The desert camel. Krager: Comparative animal nutrition series No. 5, 1985.
 104. Yahav, S., and R. Buffenstein. Huddling behavior facilitates homeothermy in the naked mole rat Heterocephalus glaber. Physiol. Zool. 64: 871–884, 1991.
 105. Zajonc, R. B., S. T. Murphy, and M. Inglehart. Feeling and facial efference: implication of the vascular theory of emotion. Psychol. Rev. 96: 395–416, 1989.

Contact Editor

Submit a note to the editor about this article by filling in the form below.

* Required Field

Article Title: The place of Behavior in Physiology
 

How to Cite

Michel Cabanac. The place of Behavior in Physiology. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 14: Handbook of Physiology, Environmental Physiology: 1523-1536. First published in print 1996. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp040267