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In vivo myoelectric activity: methods, analysis, and interpretation

Sushil K. Sarna

10.1002/cphy.cp060121

Source: Supplement 16: Handbook of Physiology, The Gastrointestinal System, Motility and Circulation

Originally published: 1989

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Control of Phasic Contractions
1.1 Temporal Control of Phasic Contractions
1.2 Spatial Control of Phasic Contractions
2 Methods of Recording
3 Methods of Analysis
4 Terminology
5 Spatial and Temporal Patterns of in Vivo Myoelectric Activity
5.1 Stomach
5.2 Small Intestine
5.3 Colon and Rectum
5.4 Esophagus
5.5 Sphincters and Organ Junctions
5.6 Sphincters
5.7 Organ Junctions
5.8 Gallbladder
6 Special Situation Contractions
6.1 Vomiting
6.2 Caudad Mass Movement
7 Relaxation‐Oscillator Versus Cable Model to Explain Organization of Electrical Control Activity
7.1 Passive Conduction
7.2 Regenerative Propagation
7.3 Relaxation‐Oscillator Propagation
8 Summary
Figure 1. Figure 1.

A: hierarchy of myogenic, neural, and chemical control of gastrointestinal motor activity. B: interaction between myogenic neural and chemical mechanisms to control contractions of gastrointestinal smooth muscle. All extrinsic nerves are bunched together for simplicity. Evidence indicates that postganglionic sympathetic nerves may also synapse at intramural ganglia to modulate contraction of smooth muscle. C: sites where endogenous chemicals may act to modulate contraction of smooth muscle.
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Relationship between intracellular and extracellular electrical activities and contractile activity. Resting membrane potential in intracellular recordings is negative with respect to extracellular fluid potential (reference). Intracellularly recorded monophasic depolarizations are recorded as biphasic or triphasic depolarizations by extracellular bipolar electrodes. In intracellular recordings, electrical response activity bursts appear during depolarized phase of control potential, but in extracellular recordings they appear after initial large depolarization of control potential. However, their temporal relationship to contractile activity is the same in both types of recordings. Membrane potential depolarizations that do not exceed the excitation threshold level are not superimposed with a burst of electrical response activity and accompanied by a contraction. Neurochemical stimulation (rectangles) increases the amplitude of electrical control activity oscillation and results in a burst of electrical response activity and a contraction during depolarization.

Adapted from Sarna 187
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Different spatial patterns of electrical control activity, electrical response activity bursts, and contractions. Electrode E1 and strain‐gauge transducer SG1 represent a proximal site. Electrodes E2–E4 and strain‐gauge transducers SG2–SG4 are at successively distal sites. A: electrical control activity is phase locked, resulting in caudad propagating contractions. B: electrical control activity is phase unlocked, resulting in uncoordinated contractions. C: electrical control activity is phase unlocked and highly variable in amplitude and waveshape, resulting in completely disorganized random contractions

Adapted from Sarna 187
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Effect of different spatial patterns of contractions on mixing and propulsive movements of the gastrointestinal tract. A: caudad propagating lumen occluding contractions. B: caudad propagating nonlumen occluding contractions. C: disorganized lumen occluding contractions.
Figure 5. Figure 5.

A: preparation and implantation of flexible wire‐type electrode. B: fabrication and implantation of Silastic base‐mounted wire electrodes. Lower inset shows fabrication of strain gauge‐electrode pair. C: stainless steel cannula to exteriorize lead wires. Two lower washers are sutured to inside of abdominal wall; single upper washer remains outside of abdominal wall.
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Bipolar (A) and monopolar (B) recordings of gastric electrical activities from the same site at different time constants (TC). One of the wires of bipolar electrode was grounded for monopolar recordings; the dog was grounded by a subcutaneous electrode. LCF, lower cutoff frequency; E, electrical recording; SG, strain‐gauge recording.
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Electrical and contractile activities recorded with 5 electrode‐strain‐gauge pairs from the stomach of an awake dog. Distances from pylorus are indicated along with electrode and strain‐gauge numbers. Recording was made 60 min after a 650‐kcal solid meal. Electrode E5 and strain gauge SG5 were on the pylorus. Each electrical control activity cycle was superimposed with a burst of electrical response activity and accompanied by a contraction at all recording sites. Onsets of a few caudad propagating control potentials and their corresponding contractions are joined by solid lines.
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Longitudinal and circumferential gradients of electrical control activity intrinsic frequency in dog stomach. Vertical arrows, sites of circumferential myotomies. Electrodes 1–5 were near the greater curvature and 1A to 4A on the midline. Longitudinal myotomy was made between the 2 sets of electrodes

From Sarna et al. 201
Figure 9. Figure 9.

Electrical stimulation of electrical control activity in the stomach. Recording electrodes 1–6 were 13.9, 10.3, 8.3, 4.6, 2.5, and 0.5 cm proximal to pylorus. Electrical stimulation at a site in between electrodes 3 and 4 entrained electrical control activity at all sites, and direction of phase lag was orad proximal to site of stimulation and caudad distal to it. Second set of arrows from left indicate last driven control potentials at each of recording sites after stimulation was stopped. Large simultaneous deflections at all recording sites indicate stimulus artifact. Normal electrical control activity frequency and caudad direction of phase lag returned a few cycles after stimulation was stopped. Electrical control activity was disorganized shortly after stimulus was stopped.

From Sarna and Daniel 194
Figure 10. Figure 10.

A: intact and intrinsic frequency gradients of electrical control activity in dog small intestine. Bars, the range of intact frequencies. First 60 cm of small intestine was in frequency plateau region where electrical control activity frequency was the same at all sites. Remainder of small intestine was in variable frequency region. Crosses, mean intrinsic frequencies after complete circumferential myotomies at sites indicated by vertical arrows. Intrinsic frequencies decreased distally in the small intestine. B: effect of a single complete circumferential myotomy on frequency gradient of electrical control activity in dog small intestine. Open circles and open squares, electrical control activity frequencies before and after circumferential myotomy at site indicated by arrow.

From Sarna et al. 199
Figure 11. Figure 11.

Different spatial patterns of electrical control activity and electrical response activity recorded from frequency plateau and variable frequency regions of dog small intestine. Numbers in parentheses, distances of electrodes from pylorus. Total length of small intestine was 372 cm. A; control waves at 5 electrodes, 6 cm apart, were phase locked in the frequency plateau region. Solid lines connect the onset of corresponding caudad propagating control potentials. Arrows indicate some of the electrical control activity cycles that had electrical response activity superimposed on them. Electrical response activity bursts propagated at nearly the same velocity as control potentials. Distance of electrical response activity burst propagation ranged from <6 to 24 cm. B: control waves from 5 electrodes, 6 cm apart, on the middle of the small intestine (variable frequency region). Solid lines connecting successive electrical control activity cycles show that control waves were not phase locked. C: control waves from 5 electrodes, 6 cm apart, in terminal ileum (variable frequency region). Control waves were totally disorganized and unstable in frequency and amplitude.
Figure 12. Figure 12.

Comparison of 2 types of electrical activities in the stomach and small intestine (A) with 4 types of electrical activities in the colon (B). Electrical control and response activities in the stomach and small intestine control occurrence of phasic contractions in time and space. Electrical control activity and discrete electrical response activity in the colon control short‐duration contractions and contractile electrical complex and continuous electrical response activity long‐duration contractions in time and space.
Figure 13. Figure 13.

A: postoperative electrical control activity recorded from 3 sites in human ascending colon by serosal electrodes. Distances between E1 and E2 and E2 and E3 were 5 and 3.5 cm, respectively. B: power spectrum of electrical control activity at electrode E2 for 1.07‐min period. Power spectrum showed 4 frequency components at 3.8, 6.4, 8.7 and 9.9 cycles/min in colonic electrical control activity during this period.

From Sarna et al. 189, Copyright 1980 by The American Gastroenterological Association
Figure 14. Figure 14.

Control of discrete electrical response activity and short‐duration contractions by electrical control activity in dog colon. First tracing, raw myoelectric signal; second tracing, filtered electrical control activity; third tracing, bursts of discrete electrical response activities; and fourth tracing, corresponding short‐duration contractions. Amplitude of contractions was related to number of response potentials in electrical response activity bursts. Vertical lines, correspondence between individual cycles of electrical control activity, bursts of discrete electrical response activity, and short‐duration contractions. Pass bands of filters are shown in parentheses. Electrical control activity in the colon is not always regular and stable in amplitude as shown here.

From Sarna 188
Figure 15. Figure 15.

Control of continuous electrical response activity and long‐duration contractions by contractile electrical complex in dog colon. First tracing, raw myoelectric signal, second tracing, filtered electrical control activity; third tracing, bursts of contractile electrical complex; fourth tracing, filtered bursts of continuous electrical response activity; and fifth tracing, long duration contractions. Pass bands of filters are in parentheses. Each burst of contractile electrical complex was associated with a burst of continuous electrical response activity and a long‐duration contraction.

From Sarna 188
Figure 16. Figure 16.

Swallow‐induced membrane potential changes in muscularis mucosa, circular muscle, longitudinal muscle, and intact esophagus of an anesthetized opossum. Recordings were made by a suction electrode.

From Sugarbaker et al. 233
Figure 17. Figure 17.

Simplified model of interaction between myogenic and neural control of esophageal contractions. Smooth muscle esophagus may be considered as a chain of bidirectionally coupled, one‐shot relaxation oscillators as shown at right. Myogenic oscillators received inputs from both intrinsic and extrinsic neurons.
Figure 18. Figure 18.

Close intra‐arterial injection of carbachol‐induced spontaneous electrical control activity oscillations, electrical response activity bursts, and phasic contractions in an anesthetized opossum esophagus. Strain‐gauge transducers SG3 and SG4 and electrode E3 were 4.3, 1.6, and 2.8 cm from the lower esophageal sphincter, respectively.

From Sarna et al. 203, Copyright 1977 by The American Gastroenterological Association
Figure 19. Figure 19.

Simultaneous manometric and myoelectric recording from the pharyngoesophageal segment at rest and during swallowing. Swallowing was associated with an inhibition followed by enhancement in the upper esophageal sphincter of spike activity. UES, upper esophageal sphincter; EMG, electromyogram.

From Van Overbeek et al. 250
Figure 20. Figure 20.

Simultaneous myoelectrical and manometric recordings from the lower esophageal sphincter of an awake opossum. Each control potential was associated with a minicontraction. When frequency and amplitude of electrical control activity increased, minicontractions fused to give rise to a long‐duration phasic contraction

Courtesy of W. J. Dodds
Figure 21. Figure 21.

Relaxation of internal anal sphincter (IAs) in humans induced by distension of a balloon in rectum and associated myoelectric activities of the IAS, external anal sphincter (EAS), and rectum.

From Monges et al. 153. In: Gastrointestinal Motility, edited by J. Christensen. © 1980, Raven Press, New York
Figure 22. Figure 22.

A: Contractile activities recorded from stomach, gastroduodenal junction (GDJ), and duodenum of a dog in the fasted state. Contractions of duodenum at 19 cycles/min were inhibited when a group of contractions occurred in the stomach during phase III activity. Arrows, inhibition. Sometimes such inhibition extended up to 40 cm distal to GDJ. B: contractile activities recorded from stomach, gastroduodenal junction, and duodenum of the same dog but after a solid meal. First recording site in duodenum, 4 cm distal to GDJ, showed 1 or 2 contractions for every single contraction in stomach. Such coordinated activity was diminished or absent at distal sites.
Figure 23. Figure 23.

Myoelectric activity recorded from choledochoduodenal junction and duodenum of an awake opossum. Electrodes SO3, SO2, and SO1 were 5 cm apart. Each electrical control activity oscillation was superimposed with a burst of electrical response activity.

From Toouli et al. 244
Figure 24. Figure 24.

Myoelectric recordings from ileum, ileocolonic junction [ileocolonic sphincter (ICS)], and colon and corresponding intraluminal pressures from ileum and ileocolonic junction after 50 μg/kg of bethanechol (iv). Myoelectric activity of ileocolonic junction is indistinguishable from that of ileum.

From Ouyang et al. 161
Figure 25. Figure 25.

First and second tracings, contractile activities of antrum and gallbladder infundibulum recorded with strain‐gauge transducers in an awake dog; third tracing, raw myoelectric signal from infundibulum; fourth tracing, filtered electrical control activity, fifth tracing, no electrical response activity bursts were present in myoelectrical activity of infundibulum that could be related to its contractile activity; and sixth tracing, duodenal contractile activity recorded with a strain‐gauge transducer. Numbers in parentheses, pass band of filters used.
Figure 26. Figure 26.

A: motor correlates of vomiting in the dog. Percentages refer to length of small intestine between Treitz’ ligament and ileocolonic junction. 1, and 1a, initial inhibition of motor activity; 2, retrograde giant contraction; 3, group of phasic contractions; and 4, motor inhibition following group of phasic contractions. B: myoelectric correlates of vomiting in another dog. Arrows, the sharp deflection associated with onset of giant retrograde contractions.

Adapted from Lang et al. 135
Figure 27. Figure 27.

Myoelectric activities associated with giant migrating contractions in small intestine. Electrode E3 and strain gauge SG3, and electrode E5 and strain gauge SG5 were pairs that recorded electrical and contractile activities from nearly the same site. Giant contraction migrated from the site of strain gauge SG3 to SG5. In each case, top tracings, raw signal; middle tracings, electrical control activity filtered in frequency range of 0–0.5 Hz; and bottom tracings, electrical response activity filtered in frequency range of 5–10 Hz.
Figure 28. Figure 28.

A: relaxation oscillator model of electrical control activity in the stomach that has been divided into small segments by longitudinal and circumferential myotomies. Broken lines, myotomies; numbers within boxes, intrinsic frequencies of relaxation oscillators. B: bidirectionally coupled relaxation‐oscillator model of intact stomach. Numbers between boxes, coupling factors; numbers within boxes, intact coupled frequencies of oscillators.

Adapted from Sarna et al. 201
Figure 29. Figure 29.

A: intrinsic frequencies of oscillators 1–6 in model of Fig. 28 A. B: intact frequencies of oscillators 1–6 in model of Fig. 28 B. Inset shows phase lag at faster paper speed.

From Sarna et al. 201


Figure 1.

A: hierarchy of myogenic, neural, and chemical control of gastrointestinal motor activity. B: interaction between myogenic neural and chemical mechanisms to control contractions of gastrointestinal smooth muscle. All extrinsic nerves are bunched together for simplicity. Evidence indicates that postganglionic sympathetic nerves may also synapse at intramural ganglia to modulate contraction of smooth muscle. C: sites where endogenous chemicals may act to modulate contraction of smooth muscle.



Figure 2.

Relationship between intracellular and extracellular electrical activities and contractile activity. Resting membrane potential in intracellular recordings is negative with respect to extracellular fluid potential (reference). Intracellularly recorded monophasic depolarizations are recorded as biphasic or triphasic depolarizations by extracellular bipolar electrodes. In intracellular recordings, electrical response activity bursts appear during depolarized phase of control potential, but in extracellular recordings they appear after initial large depolarization of control potential. However, their temporal relationship to contractile activity is the same in both types of recordings. Membrane potential depolarizations that do not exceed the excitation threshold level are not superimposed with a burst of electrical response activity and accompanied by a contraction. Neurochemical stimulation (rectangles) increases the amplitude of electrical control activity oscillation and results in a burst of electrical response activity and a contraction during depolarization.

Adapted from Sarna 187


Figure 3.

Different spatial patterns of electrical control activity, electrical response activity bursts, and contractions. Electrode E1 and strain‐gauge transducer SG1 represent a proximal site. Electrodes E2–E4 and strain‐gauge transducers SG2–SG4 are at successively distal sites. A: electrical control activity is phase locked, resulting in caudad propagating contractions. B: electrical control activity is phase unlocked, resulting in uncoordinated contractions. C: electrical control activity is phase unlocked and highly variable in amplitude and waveshape, resulting in completely disorganized random contractions

Adapted from Sarna 187


Figure 4.

Effect of different spatial patterns of contractions on mixing and propulsive movements of the gastrointestinal tract. A: caudad propagating lumen occluding contractions. B: caudad propagating nonlumen occluding contractions. C: disorganized lumen occluding contractions.



Figure 5.

A: preparation and implantation of flexible wire‐type electrode. B: fabrication and implantation of Silastic base‐mounted wire electrodes. Lower inset shows fabrication of strain gauge‐electrode pair. C: stainless steel cannula to exteriorize lead wires. Two lower washers are sutured to inside of abdominal wall; single upper washer remains outside of abdominal wall.



Figure 6.

Bipolar (A) and monopolar (B) recordings of gastric electrical activities from the same site at different time constants (TC). One of the wires of bipolar electrode was grounded for monopolar recordings; the dog was grounded by a subcutaneous electrode. LCF, lower cutoff frequency; E, electrical recording; SG, strain‐gauge recording.



Figure 7.

Electrical and contractile activities recorded with 5 electrode‐strain‐gauge pairs from the stomach of an awake dog. Distances from pylorus are indicated along with electrode and strain‐gauge numbers. Recording was made 60 min after a 650‐kcal solid meal. Electrode E5 and strain gauge SG5 were on the pylorus. Each electrical control activity cycle was superimposed with a burst of electrical response activity and accompanied by a contraction at all recording sites. Onsets of a few caudad propagating control potentials and their corresponding contractions are joined by solid lines.



Figure 8.

Longitudinal and circumferential gradients of electrical control activity intrinsic frequency in dog stomach. Vertical arrows, sites of circumferential myotomies. Electrodes 1–5 were near the greater curvature and 1A to 4A on the midline. Longitudinal myotomy was made between the 2 sets of electrodes

From Sarna et al. 201


Figure 9.

Electrical stimulation of electrical control activity in the stomach. Recording electrodes 1–6 were 13.9, 10.3, 8.3, 4.6, 2.5, and 0.5 cm proximal to pylorus. Electrical stimulation at a site in between electrodes 3 and 4 entrained electrical control activity at all sites, and direction of phase lag was orad proximal to site of stimulation and caudad distal to it. Second set of arrows from left indicate last driven control potentials at each of recording sites after stimulation was stopped. Large simultaneous deflections at all recording sites indicate stimulus artifact. Normal electrical control activity frequency and caudad direction of phase lag returned a few cycles after stimulation was stopped. Electrical control activity was disorganized shortly after stimulus was stopped.

From Sarna and Daniel 194


Figure 10.

A: intact and intrinsic frequency gradients of electrical control activity in dog small intestine. Bars, the range of intact frequencies. First 60 cm of small intestine was in frequency plateau region where electrical control activity frequency was the same at all sites. Remainder of small intestine was in variable frequency region. Crosses, mean intrinsic frequencies after complete circumferential myotomies at sites indicated by vertical arrows. Intrinsic frequencies decreased distally in the small intestine. B: effect of a single complete circumferential myotomy on frequency gradient of electrical control activity in dog small intestine. Open circles and open squares, electrical control activity frequencies before and after circumferential myotomy at site indicated by arrow.

From Sarna et al. 199


Figure 11.

Different spatial patterns of electrical control activity and electrical response activity recorded from frequency plateau and variable frequency regions of dog small intestine. Numbers in parentheses, distances of electrodes from pylorus. Total length of small intestine was 372 cm. A; control waves at 5 electrodes, 6 cm apart, were phase locked in the frequency plateau region. Solid lines connect the onset of corresponding caudad propagating control potentials. Arrows indicate some of the electrical control activity cycles that had electrical response activity superimposed on them. Electrical response activity bursts propagated at nearly the same velocity as control potentials. Distance of electrical response activity burst propagation ranged from <6 to 24 cm. B: control waves from 5 electrodes, 6 cm apart, on the middle of the small intestine (variable frequency region). Solid lines connecting successive electrical control activity cycles show that control waves were not phase locked. C: control waves from 5 electrodes, 6 cm apart, in terminal ileum (variable frequency region). Control waves were totally disorganized and unstable in frequency and amplitude.



Figure 12.

Comparison of 2 types of electrical activities in the stomach and small intestine (A) with 4 types of electrical activities in the colon (B). Electrical control and response activities in the stomach and small intestine control occurrence of phasic contractions in time and space. Electrical control activity and discrete electrical response activity in the colon control short‐duration contractions and contractile electrical complex and continuous electrical response activity long‐duration contractions in time and space.



Figure 13.

A: postoperative electrical control activity recorded from 3 sites in human ascending colon by serosal electrodes. Distances between E1 and E2 and E2 and E3 were 5 and 3.5 cm, respectively. B: power spectrum of electrical control activity at electrode E2 for 1.07‐min period. Power spectrum showed 4 frequency components at 3.8, 6.4, 8.7 and 9.9 cycles/min in colonic electrical control activity during this period.

From Sarna et al. 189, Copyright 1980 by The American Gastroenterological Association


Figure 14.

Control of discrete electrical response activity and short‐duration contractions by electrical control activity in dog colon. First tracing, raw myoelectric signal; second tracing, filtered electrical control activity; third tracing, bursts of discrete electrical response activities; and fourth tracing, corresponding short‐duration contractions. Amplitude of contractions was related to number of response potentials in electrical response activity bursts. Vertical lines, correspondence between individual cycles of electrical control activity, bursts of discrete electrical response activity, and short‐duration contractions. Pass bands of filters are shown in parentheses. Electrical control activity in the colon is not always regular and stable in amplitude as shown here.

From Sarna 188


Figure 15.

Control of continuous electrical response activity and long‐duration contractions by contractile electrical complex in dog colon. First tracing, raw myoelectric signal, second tracing, filtered electrical control activity; third tracing, bursts of contractile electrical complex; fourth tracing, filtered bursts of continuous electrical response activity; and fifth tracing, long duration contractions. Pass bands of filters are in parentheses. Each burst of contractile electrical complex was associated with a burst of continuous electrical response activity and a long‐duration contraction.

From Sarna 188


Figure 16.

Swallow‐induced membrane potential changes in muscularis mucosa, circular muscle, longitudinal muscle, and intact esophagus of an anesthetized opossum. Recordings were made by a suction electrode.

From Sugarbaker et al. 233


Figure 17.

Simplified model of interaction between myogenic and neural control of esophageal contractions. Smooth muscle esophagus may be considered as a chain of bidirectionally coupled, one‐shot relaxation oscillators as shown at right. Myogenic oscillators received inputs from both intrinsic and extrinsic neurons.



Figure 18.

Close intra‐arterial injection of carbachol‐induced spontaneous electrical control activity oscillations, electrical response activity bursts, and phasic contractions in an anesthetized opossum esophagus. Strain‐gauge transducers SG3 and SG4 and electrode E3 were 4.3, 1.6, and 2.8 cm from the lower esophageal sphincter, respectively.

From Sarna et al. 203, Copyright 1977 by The American Gastroenterological Association


Figure 19.

Simultaneous manometric and myoelectric recording from the pharyngoesophageal segment at rest and during swallowing. Swallowing was associated with an inhibition followed by enhancement in the upper esophageal sphincter of spike activity. UES, upper esophageal sphincter; EMG, electromyogram.

From Van Overbeek et al. 250


Figure 20.

Simultaneous myoelectrical and manometric recordings from the lower esophageal sphincter of an awake opossum. Each control potential was associated with a minicontraction. When frequency and amplitude of electrical control activity increased, minicontractions fused to give rise to a long‐duration phasic contraction

Courtesy of W. J. Dodds


Figure 21.

Relaxation of internal anal sphincter (IAs) in humans induced by distension of a balloon in rectum and associated myoelectric activities of the IAS, external anal sphincter (EAS), and rectum.

From Monges et al. 153. In: Gastrointestinal Motility, edited by J. Christensen. © 1980, Raven Press, New York


Figure 22.

A: Contractile activities recorded from stomach, gastroduodenal junction (GDJ), and duodenum of a dog in the fasted state. Contractions of duodenum at 19 cycles/min were inhibited when a group of contractions occurred in the stomach during phase III activity. Arrows, inhibition. Sometimes such inhibition extended up to 40 cm distal to GDJ. B: contractile activities recorded from stomach, gastroduodenal junction, and duodenum of the same dog but after a solid meal. First recording site in duodenum, 4 cm distal to GDJ, showed 1 or 2 contractions for every single contraction in stomach. Such coordinated activity was diminished or absent at distal sites.



Figure 23.

Myoelectric activity recorded from choledochoduodenal junction and duodenum of an awake opossum. Electrodes SO3, SO2, and SO1 were 5 cm apart. Each electrical control activity oscillation was superimposed with a burst of electrical response activity.

From Toouli et al. 244


Figure 24.

Myoelectric recordings from ileum, ileocolonic junction [ileocolonic sphincter (ICS)], and colon and corresponding intraluminal pressures from ileum and ileocolonic junction after 50 μg/kg of bethanechol (iv). Myoelectric activity of ileocolonic junction is indistinguishable from that of ileum.

From Ouyang et al. 161


Figure 25.

First and second tracings, contractile activities of antrum and gallbladder infundibulum recorded with strain‐gauge transducers in an awake dog; third tracing, raw myoelectric signal from infundibulum; fourth tracing, filtered electrical control activity, fifth tracing, no electrical response activity bursts were present in myoelectrical activity of infundibulum that could be related to its contractile activity; and sixth tracing, duodenal contractile activity recorded with a strain‐gauge transducer. Numbers in parentheses, pass band of filters used.



Figure 26.

A: motor correlates of vomiting in the dog. Percentages refer to length of small intestine between Treitz’ ligament and ileocolonic junction. 1, and 1a, initial inhibition of motor activity; 2, retrograde giant contraction; 3, group of phasic contractions; and 4, motor inhibition following group of phasic contractions. B: myoelectric correlates of vomiting in another dog. Arrows, the sharp deflection associated with onset of giant retrograde contractions.

Adapted from Lang et al. 135


Figure 27.

Myoelectric activities associated with giant migrating contractions in small intestine. Electrode E3 and strain gauge SG3, and electrode E5 and strain gauge SG5 were pairs that recorded electrical and contractile activities from nearly the same site. Giant contraction migrated from the site of strain gauge SG3 to SG5. In each case, top tracings, raw signal; middle tracings, electrical control activity filtered in frequency range of 0–0.5 Hz; and bottom tracings, electrical response activity filtered in frequency range of 5–10 Hz.



Figure 28.

A: relaxation oscillator model of electrical control activity in the stomach that has been divided into small segments by longitudinal and circumferential myotomies. Broken lines, myotomies; numbers within boxes, intrinsic frequencies of relaxation oscillators. B: bidirectionally coupled relaxation‐oscillator model of intact stomach. Numbers between boxes, coupling factors; numbers within boxes, intact coupled frequencies of oscillators.

Adapted from Sarna et al. 201


Figure 29.

A: intrinsic frequencies of oscillators 1–6 in model of Fig. 28 A. B: intact frequencies of oscillators 1–6 in model of Fig. 28 B. Inset shows phase lag at faster paper speed.

From Sarna et al. 201
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Article Title: In vivo myoelectric activity: methods, analysis, and interpretation
 

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Sushil K. Sarna. In vivo myoelectric activity: methods, analysis, and interpretation. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 16: Handbook of Physiology, The Gastrointestinal System, Motility and Circulation: 817-863. First published in print 1989. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp060121