Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library
For Librarians For Authors Editors About

Somatic Growth and its Regulation

Pamela A. Clark, Alan D. Rogol

10.1002/cphy.cp070502

Source: Supplement 24: Handbook of Physiology, The Endocrine System, Hormonal Control of Growth

Originally published: 1999

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Variations of Normal Growth
1.1 Normal Variations in Infancy
1.2 Constitutional Delay of Growth and Adolescence
1.3 Constitutional Accelerated Growth
1.4 Premature Adrenarche
1.5 Premature Thelarche
1.6 Gynecomastia
2 Abnormal Growth
2.1 Intrinsic Disorders of Growth Deficiency
2.2 Extrinsic Disorders of Growth Deficiency
2.3 Intrinsic Disorders of Increased Growth
2.4 Extrinsic Disorders of Increased Growth
3 Assessment of Growth
3.1 Growth Standards
3.2 Standards for Pubertal Development
3.3 Terminology
3.4 Measurement Techniques
3.5 Anthropometry
3.6 Body Composition Assessment
3.7 Assessment of Biological Maturity
3.8 Mathematical Modeling of Growth Data and Prediction of Adult Height
3.9 Methods for Assessment of Growth in Laboratory Animals
4 Assessment of the Regulation of Growth
4.1 General Considerations
4.2 Screening Procedures
4.3 Static Hormone Levels
4.4 Serial Growth Hormone Sampling
4.5 Stimulation Testing
4.6 Suppression Tests
5 Summary
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Whole‐year height velocity standards for North American boys. Dashed line at left: 50th percentile for boys 2 SD early. Dashed line at right: 50th percentile for boys 2 SD late, ∧ and ∨: 97th and 3rd percentiles for peak height velocities of early‐and late‐maturers, respectively.

From Tanner and Davies 205 with permission
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Growth chart for girls with Turner's syndrome compared to normal female growth. Dark lines show growth in normal girls: percentiles derived from the National Center for Health Statistics. Fine lines show growth in untreated girls with Turner's syndrome; percentiles derived from Lyon et al. 125.

From Lyon et al. 125 and Genentech, Inc., with permission
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Height attained for North American boys. Superimposed are, top, 50th percentile (solid line) and 95th percentile (dashed line) for boys 2 SD of tempo early and, bottom, 50th percentile (solid line) and 5th percentile (dashed line) for boys 2 SD of tempo late.

From Tanner and Davies 205 with permission
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Height attained for North American girls. Superimposed are, top, 50th percentile (solid line) and 95th percentile (dashed line) for girls 2 SD of tempo early and, bottom, 50th percentile (solid line) and 5th percentile (dashed line) for girls 2 SD of tempo late.

From Tanner and Davies 205 with permission
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Standard length and weight curves from birth to 36 months. (A) boys. (B) girls.

From Ross Laboratories with permission
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Standard height and weight curves for ages 2–18 years. (A) boys. (B) Girls.

From Genentech, Inc., with permission
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Standard deviation curves for height. (A) boys. (B) girls.

From Genentech, Inc., with permission
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Pubertal stages for male genitalia development.

From Tanner 203 with permission
Figure 9. Figure 9.

Pubertal stages for female breast development.

From Tanner 203 with permission
Figure 10. Figure 10.

Pubertal stages for pubic hair development: A, boys; B, girls.

From Tanner 203 with permission
Figure 11. Figure 11.

Development of dentition: top, deciduous teeth; bottom, permanent teeth.

From Simon and Stevenson 192 with permission


Figure 1.

Whole‐year height velocity standards for North American boys. Dashed line at left: 50th percentile for boys 2 SD early. Dashed line at right: 50th percentile for boys 2 SD late, ∧ and ∨: 97th and 3rd percentiles for peak height velocities of early‐and late‐maturers, respectively.

From Tanner and Davies 205 with permission


Figure 2.

Growth chart for girls with Turner's syndrome compared to normal female growth. Dark lines show growth in normal girls: percentiles derived from the National Center for Health Statistics. Fine lines show growth in untreated girls with Turner's syndrome; percentiles derived from Lyon et al. 125.

From Lyon et al. 125 and Genentech, Inc., with permission


Figure 3.

Height attained for North American boys. Superimposed are, top, 50th percentile (solid line) and 95th percentile (dashed line) for boys 2 SD of tempo early and, bottom, 50th percentile (solid line) and 5th percentile (dashed line) for boys 2 SD of tempo late.

From Tanner and Davies 205 with permission


Figure 4.

Height attained for North American girls. Superimposed are, top, 50th percentile (solid line) and 95th percentile (dashed line) for girls 2 SD of tempo early and, bottom, 50th percentile (solid line) and 5th percentile (dashed line) for girls 2 SD of tempo late.

From Tanner and Davies 205 with permission


Figure 5.

Standard length and weight curves from birth to 36 months. (A) boys. (B) girls.

From Ross Laboratories with permission


Figure 6.

Standard height and weight curves for ages 2–18 years. (A) boys. (B) Girls.

From Genentech, Inc., with permission


Figure 7.

Standard deviation curves for height. (A) boys. (B) girls.

From Genentech, Inc., with permission


Figure 8.

Pubertal stages for male genitalia development.

From Tanner 203 with permission


Figure 9.

Pubertal stages for female breast development.

From Tanner 203 with permission


Figure 10.

Pubertal stages for pubic hair development: A, boys; B, girls.

From Tanner 203 with permission


Figure 11.

Development of dentition: top, deciduous teeth; bottom, permanent teeth.

From Simon and Stevenson 192 with permission
References
 1. Albertsson‐Wikland, K. Growth hormone secretion and growth hormone treatment in children with intra‐uterine growth retardation. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 349: 35–41, 1989.
 2. Albertsson‐Wikland, K., and S. Rosberg. Analyses of 24‐hour growth hormone profiles in children: relation to growth. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 67: 493–500, 1988.
 3. Albertsson‐Wikland, K., and S. Rosberg. Methods of evaluating spontaneous growth hormone secretion. In: Functional Endocrinologic Diagnostics in Children and Adolescents, edited by M. B. Ranke. Mannheim: J. & J. Verlag, 1992, p. 76–101.
 4. Albertsson‐Wikland, K., and S. Rosberg. Reproducibility of 24‐h growth hormone profiles in children. Acta Endocrinol. (Copenh.) 126: 109–112, 1992.
 5. Albertsson‐Wikland, K., S. Rosberg, J. Karlberg, and T. Groth. Analysis of 24‐hour growth hormone profiles in healthy boys and girls of normal stature: relation to puberty. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 78: 1195–1201, 1994.
 6. Allen, D. B., C. G. D. Brook, N. A. Bridges, P. C. Hindmarsh, H. J. Guyda, and D. Frazier. Therapeutic controversies: growth hormone (GH) treatment of non‐GH deficient subjects. GH for the disability of short stature. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 79: 1239–1241, 1994.
 7. Allen, D. B., and B. D. Goldberg. Stimulation of collagen synthesis and linear growth by growth hormone in glucocorticoid‐treated children. Pediatrics 89: 416–421, 1992.
 8. Apter, D., B. Cacciatore, H. Alfthan, and U. Stenman. Serum luteinizing hormone concentrations increase 100‐fold in females from 7 years of age to adulthood, as measured by time‐resolved immunofluorometric assay. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 68: 53–57, 1989.
 9. Argente, J., V. Barrios, J. Pozo, T. Munoz, F. Hervas, M. Stene, and M. Hernandez. Normative data for insulin‐like growth factors (IGFs), IGF‐binding proteins, and growth hormone–binding protein in a healthy Spanish pediatric population: age‐and sex‐related changes. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 77: 1522–1528, 1993.
 10. Aronson, A. S., L. I. Hansson, and G. Selvik. Roentgen stereophotogrammetry for determination of daily longitudinal bone growth in the rabbit: comparison with the tetracyclin method. Acta Radiol. Diagn. 19: 97–105, 1978.
 11. Avioli, L. V. Glucocorticoid effects on statural growth. Br. J. Rheumatol. 32: 27–30, 1993.
 12. Balfour‐Lynn, L. Growth and childhood asthma. Arch. Dis. Child. 61: 1049–1055, 1986.
 13. Barnes, N. C. Safety of high‐dose inhaled corticosteroids. Respir. Med. 87: 27–31, 1993.
 14. Bayley, N., and S. Pinneau. Tables for predicting adult height from skeletal age. J. Pediatr. 40: 423–441, 1952.
 15. Bercu, B. B., and F. Diamond. Growth hormone neurosecretory dysfunction. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 15: 537–590, 1986.
 16. Betts, P. R., and G. MacGrath. Growth patterns and dietary intake of children with chronic renal insufficiency. BMJ 2: 189–193, 1974.
 17. Bidlingmaier, F., M. Wagner‐Barnack, T. Butenandt, and D. Knorr. Plasma estrogens in childhood and puberty under physiologic and pathologic conditions. Pediatr. Res. 7: 901–907, 1973.
 18. Bierich, J. R. Constitutional delay of growth and development. Growth Genet. Horm. 3: 9–12, 1987.
 19. Blethen, S. L., and F. I. Chasalow. Overnight dexamethasone suppression test: normal responses and the diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome. Steroids 54: 185–193, 1989.
 20. Blethen, S. L., S. Gaines, and V. Weldon. Comparison of predicted and adult heights in short boys: effect of androgen therapy. Pediatr. Res. 18: 467–469, 1984.
 21. Blizzard, R. M., P. C. Hindmarsh, and R. Stanhope. Oxandrolone. Growth Genet. Horm. 7: 1, 1991.
 22. Blum, W. F. Insulin‐like growth factors (IGFs) and IGF binding proteins in chronic renal failure: evidence for reduced secretion of IGFs. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 379: S24–S31, 1991.
 23. Bock, R. D., and D. M. Thissen. Statistical problems of fitting individual growth curves. In: Human Physical Growth and Maturation: Methodologies and Factors, edited by F. E. Johnston, A. F. Roche, and C. Susanne. New York: Plenum, 1980, p. 265–290.
 24. Boersma, B., B. Rikken, and J. M. Wit. Catch‐up growth in early treated patients with growth hormone deficiency. Dutch Growth Hormone Working Group. Arch. Dis. Child. 72: 427–431, 1995.
 25. Boner, A. L., and G. L. Piacentini. Inhaled corticosteroids in children. Is there a “safe” dosage? Drug Saf. 9: 9–20, 1993.
 26. Bouchard, C., J. P. Despres, and P. Mauriege. Genetic and non‐genetic determinants of regional distribution of body fat. Endocr. Rev. 14: 72–93, 1993.
 27. Brain, C. E., and M. O. Savage. Growth and puberty in chronic inflammatory bowel disease. Baillieres Clin. Gastroenterol. 8: 83–100, 1994.
 28. Brook, C. D. G., N. A. Bridges, and P. C. Hindmarsh. Therapeutic controversies: growth hormone (GH) treatment of non‐GH deficient subjects. The gradualist approach of an empiricist. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 79: 1241–1243, 1994.
 29. Brozek, J., F. Grande, J. R. Anderson, and A. Kemp. Densitometric analysis of body composition: revision of some quantitative assumptions. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 110: 113–140, 1963.
 30. Burton, B. K. Inborn errors of metabolism: the clinical diagnosis in early infancy. Pediatrics 79: 359–369, 1987.
 31. Cameron, N. The Measurement of Human Growth. London: Croom Helm, 1984.
 32. Carson, N. A. J., D. C. Cusworth, C. E. Dent, C. M. B. Field, D. W. Neill, and R. G. Westall. Homocystinuria: a new inborn error of metabolism associated with mental deficiency. Arch. Dis. Child. 38: 425–436, 1963.
 33. Chasalow, F. I., and L. J. Ginsberg. Laboratory aids and tolerance testing in pediatric endocrinology: a practical approach. In: Pediatric Endocrinology (3rd ed), edited by F. Lifshitz. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1996, p. 861–885.
 34. Chatelain, P. G. Auxology and response to growth hormone treatment of patients with intrauterine growth retardation or Silver‐Russell syndrome: analysis of data from the Kabi Pharmacia International Growth Study. Acta. Paediatr. Scand. 391: 79–81, 1993.
 35. Chowen, J. A., D. Evain‐Brion, J. Pozo, E. Alsat, L. M. Garcia‐Segura, and J. Argente. Decreased expression of placental growth hormone in intrauterine growth retardation. Pediatr. Res. 39: 736–739, 1996.
 36. Chumlea, W. C., R. N. Baumgartner, and A. F. Roche. Specific resistivity used to estimate fat‐free mass from segmental body measures of bioelectric impedance. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 48: 7–15, 1988.
 37. Clark, P. A., and W. L. Clarke. Testotoxicosis: an unusual presentation and novel gene mutation. Clin. Pediatr. (Phila.) 34: 271–277, 1995.
 38. Clark, P. A., and A. D. Rogol. Growth, development, and critical disease. In: Endocrinology of Critical Disease, edited by K. P. Ober. Totowa, NJ: Human Press, 1997.
 39. Clark, R. G., J. O. Jansson, O. Isaksson, and I. C. A. F. Robinson. Intravenous growth hormone: growth responses to patterned infusions in hypophysectomized rats. J. Endocrinol. 104: 58–61, 1985.
 40. Combs, C. A., E. Gunderson, J. L. Kitzmiller, L. A. Gavin, and E. K. Main. Relationship of fetal macrosomia to maternal postprandial glucose control during pregnancy. Diabetes Care 15: 1251–1257, 1992.
 41. Conte, F. A., M. M. Grumbach, and S. L. Kaplan. A diphasic pattern of gonadotropin secretion in patients with the syndrome of gonadal dysgenesis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 40: 670–676, 1975.
 42. Copinschi, G., L. C. Wegienka, S. Hane, and P. Forsham. Effect of arginine on serum levels of insulin and growth hormone in obese subjects. Metabolism 16: 485–491, 1967.
 43. Corvol, P., A. Michaud, J. Menard, M. Freifeld, and J. Mahoudeau. Antiandrogenic effects of spironolactone: mechanism of action. Endocrinology 97: 52–58, 1975.
 44. Counts, D. R., H. Gwirtsman, L. M. S. Carlsson, M. Lesem, and G. B. Cutler, Jr. The effects of anorexia nervosa and re‐feeding on growth hormone–binding protein, the insulin‐like growth factors (IGFs), and the IGF‐binding proteins. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 75: 762–767, 1992.
 45. Crowne, E. C., S. M. Shalet, W. H. B. Wallace, D. M. Eminson, and D. A. Price. Final height in boys with untreated constitutional delay of growth and puberty. Arch. Dis. Child. 65: 1109–1112, 1990.
 46. Cummins, M., and M. Norrish. Follow‐up of children of diabetic mothers. Arch. Dis. Child. 55: 259–264, 1980.
 47. Darendeliler, F., P. C. Hindmarsh, M. A. Preece, L. Cox, and C. G. D. Brook. Growth hormone increases rate of pubertal maturation. Acta Endocrinol. (Copenh.) 122: 414–416, 1990.
 48. Davies, P. S., and J. C. Wells. Calculation of total body water in infancy. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 48: 490–495, 1994.
 49. Deiber, M., P. Chatelain, D. Naville, G. Putet, and B. Salle. Functional hypersomatotropism in small‐for‐gestational age (SGA) newborn infants. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 68: 232–234, 1990.
 50. DeRidder, C. M., R. W. de Boer, J. C. Seidell, C. M. Nieuvenhoff, J. A. L. Jeneson, C. J. G. Bakker, M. L. Zonderland, and W. B. M. Erick. Body fat distribution in pubertal girls quantified by magnetic resonance imaging. Int. J. Obes. 16: 443–449, 1992.
 51. Despres, J. P., S. Moorjani, P. J. Lupien, A. Tremblay, A. Nadeau, and C. Bouchard. Regional distribution of body fat, plasma lipoproteins, and cardiovascular disease. Arteriosclerosis 10: 497–511, 1990.
 52. Dewailly, D., M. Vantyghem‐Haudiquet, C. Sainsard, J. Buvat, J. Cappoen, K. Ardaens, A. Racadot, J. Lefebvre, and P. Fossati. Clinical and biological phenotypes in late‐onset 21‐hydroxylase deficiency. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 63: 418–423, 1986.
 53. Dickerman, Z., J. Loewinger, and Z. Laron. The pattern of growth in children with constitutional tall stature from birth to age 9 years. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 73: 530–536, 1984.
 54. Dieguez, C., and F. F. Casanueva. Influence of metabolic substrates and obesity on growth hormone secretion. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 6: 55–59, 1995.
 55. Drezner, M. K., and F. A. Neelon. Pseudohypoparathyroidism. In: The Metabolic Basis of Inherited Disease, edited by J. B. Stanbury, J. B. Wyngaarden, D. S. Fredrickson, J. L. Goldstein, and M. S. Brown. New York: McGraw‐Hill, 1983, p. 1508–1527.
 56. Drucker, S., and M. I. New. Nonclassic adrenal hyperplasia due to 21‐hydroxylase deficiency. Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 34: 1067–1081, 1987.
 57. Dubey, A. K., A. Hanukoglu, B. C. Hansen, and A. A. Kowarski. Metabolic clearance rates of synthetic human growth hormone in lean and obese male rhesus monkeys. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 67: 1064–1067, 1988.
 58. Ducharme, J. R., and R. Collu. Pubertal development: normal, precocious and delayed. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 11: 57–87, 1982.
 59. Falliers, C. J., L. S. Tan, J. Sventivanyi, J. R. Jorgensen, and S. C. Bukantz. Childhood asthma and steroid therapy as influences on growth. Am. J. Dis. Child. 105: 127–137, 1963.
 60. Feuillan, P. P., J. Jones, and G. B. Cutler, Jr. Long term testolactone therapy for precocious puberty in girls with the McCune‐Albright syndrome. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 77: 647–651, 1993.
 61. Fine, R. N., E. C. Kohault, D. Brown, and A.J. Perlman. Growth after recombinant human growth hormone treatment in children with chronic renal failure: a report of a multicenter randomized double‐blind placebo‐controlled study. Genentech Cooperative Study Group. J. Pediatr. 124: 374–382, 1994.
 62. Fine, R. N., K. Pyke‐Grimm, P. A. Nelson, M. I. Boechat, B. M. Lippe, O. Yadin, and E. Kamil. Recombinant human growth hormone treatment of children with chronic renal failure: long‐term (1‐to 3‐year) outcome. Pediatr. Nephrol. 5: 477–481, 1991.
 63. Fine, R. N., O. Yadin, L. Moulton, P. A. Nelson, M. I. Boechat, and B. M. Lippe. Five years experience with recombinant human growth hormone treatment of children with chronic renal failure. J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. 7: 1–12, 1994.
 64. Fingerhut, M., and D. T. Krieger. Plasma growth hormone response to l‐dopa in obese subjects. Metabolism 23: 267–281, 1984.
 65. Fisher, D. A. The thyroid. In: Clinical Pediatric Endocrinology, edited by S. A. Kaplan. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1990, p. 95.
 66. Fisher, D. A., and B. L. Foley. Early treatment of congenital hypothyroidism. Pediatrics 83: 785–789, 1989.
 67. Fitzhardinge, P. M., and E. M. Steven. The small‐for‐date infant. I. Later growth patterns. Pediatrics 49: 671–674, 1972.
 68. Foster, C. M., M. Borondy, M. E. Markovs, N. J. Hopwood, G. B. Kletter, and I. Z. Beitins. Growth hormone bioactivity in girls with Turner's syndrome: correlation with insulin‐like growth factor I. Pediatr. Res. 35: 218–222, 1994.
 69. Frasier, S. D. Growth disorders in children. Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 26: 1–14, 1979.
 70. Frasier, S. D. Tall stature and excessive growth syndromes. In: Pediatric Endocrinology (3rd ed.), edited by F. Lifschitz. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1996, p. 163–174.
 71. Garn, S. M., C. G. Rohman, and F.N. Silverman. Radiographic standards for postnatal ossification and tooth calcification. Med. Radiogr. Photogr. 43: 45–66, 1967.
 72. Gluckman, P., and J. Harding. The regulation of fetal growth. In: Human Growth: Basic and Clinical Aspects, edited by M. Henandez and J. Argente. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1992, p. 253–259.
 73. Green, O. C., R. J. Winter, and R. Depp. Fuel‐mediated teratogenesis: prospective correlations between anthropometric development in childhood and antepartum maternal metabolism. Clin. Res. 35: 657A, 1987.
 74. Greulich, W. W., and S. I. Pyle. Radiographic Atlas of Skeletal Development of the Hand and Wrist. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1959.
 75. Hack, M., I. R. Merkatz, S. K. McGrath, P. K. Jones, and A. A. Fanaroff. Catch‐up growth in very low birth‐weight infants: clinical correlates. Am. J. Dis. Child. 138: 370–375, 1984.
 76. Hagg, U., and J. Taranger. Pubertal growth and maturity pattern in early and late maturers. Swed. Dent. J. 16: 199–209, 1992.
 77. Hall, J. G. Turner syndrome. In: The Genetic Basis of Common Disorders, edited by R. A. King, J. I. Rotter, and A. G. Motulsky. London: Oxford University Press, 1982, p. 895–914.
 78. Hammer, L. D., H. C. Fraemer, D. M. Wilson, P. L. Ritter, and S. M. Dornbusch. Standardized percentile curves of body‐mass index for children and adolescents. Am. J. Dis. Child. 145: 259–263, 1991.
 79. Hansson, L. I. Daily growth in length of diaphysis measured by oxytetracycline in rabbit normally and after medullary plugging. Acta Orthop. Scand. Suppl. 101: 9–199, 1967.
 80. Hasegawa, Y., T. Hasegawa, and Y. Tsuchiya. Clinical utility of total insulin‐like growth factor‐I and insulin‐like growth factor binding protein‐3 measurements in the evaluation of short children. Clin. Pediatr. Endocrinol. 4: 103–113, 1995.
 81. Heitz, P. U., G. Kloppel, W. H. Hacki, M. Polak, and A. G. Pearse. Nesidioblastosis: the pathologic basis of persistent hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia in infants. Diabetes 26: 637–642, 1977.
 82. Hermanussen, M., M. De Lama, J. Burmeister, and J. Fernandez‐Tresguerres. Mikroknemometry: an accurate technique of growth measurement in rats. Physiol. Behav. 58: 347–352, 1995.
 83. Hermanussen, M., K. Geiger‐Benoit, J. Burmeister, and W. G. Sippell. Periodic changes of short term growth velocity (mini growth spurts) in human growth. Ann. Hum. Biol. 15: 103–109, 1988.
 84. Hindmarsh, P., P. J. Smith, C. G. D. Brook, and D. R. Matthews. The relationship between height velocity and growth hormone secretion in short prepubertal children. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.) 27: 581–591, 1987.
 85. Hochberg, Z., P. Hertz, V. Colin, S. Ish‐Shalom, D. Yeshurun, M. Youdim, and T. Amit. The distal axis of growth hormone (GH) in nutritional disorders: GH‐binding protein, insulin‐like growth factor‐1, and IGF‐1 receptors in obesity and anorexia nervosa. Metabolism 41: 106–112, 1992.
 86. Hodson, E. M., A. S. Brown, L. P. Roy, and A. R. Rosenberg. Insulin‐like growth factor‐1, growth hormone‐dependent insulin‐like growth factor‐binding protein and growth in children with chronic renal failure. Pediatr. Nephrol. 6: 433–438, 1992.
 87. Holland, F. J. Gonadotropin‐independent precocious puberty. Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. North Am. 20: 191–210, 1991.
 88. Holland, F. J., L. Fishman, J. D. Baily, and A. T. A. Fazekas. Ketoconazole in the management of precocious puberty not responsive to LHRH‐analogue therapy. N. Engl. J. Med. 312: 1023–1028, 1985.
 89. Holland, F. J., S. E. Kirsh, and R. Selby. Gonadotropin‐independent precocious puberty (“testotoxicosis”): influence of maturational status on response to ketoconazole. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 64: 328–332, 1987.
 90. Holms, G. E., H. C. Miller, K. Hassanein, S. B. Lansky, and J. E. Goggin. Postnatal somatic growth in infants with atypical fetal growth patterns. Am. J. Dis. Child. 131: 1078–1083, 1977.
 91. Horner, J. M., A. V. Thorsson, and R. L. Hintz. Growth deceleration patterns in children with constitutional short stature: an aid to diagnosis. Pediatrics 62: 529–534, 1978.
 92. Hull, P. Genetic relations between carcass fat and body weight in mice. J. Agric. Sci. 53: 317–321, 1960.
 93. Isgaard, J., L. Carlsson, O. G. P. Isaksson, and J. O. Jansson. Pulsatile intravenous growth hormone (GH) infusion to hypophysectomized rats increases insulin‐like growth factor I messenger ribonucleic acid in skeletal tissues more effectively than continuous GH infusion. Endocrinology 123: 2605–2610, 1988.
 94. Jaeken, J., M. Van Der Scheren‐Lodeweyckx, and R. Eeckels. Cerebral giantism syndrome. A report of 4 cases and review of the literature. Z. Kinderheilk. 112: 332–346, 1972.
 95. Jansson, J. D., K. Albertsson‐Wikland, S. Eden, K. G. Throngren, and O. Isaksson. Circumstantial evidence for a role of the secretory pattern of growth hormone in control of body growth. Acta Endocrinol. (Copenh.) 99: 24–30, 1982.
 96. Jennings, A. S., G. W. Liddle, and D. N. Orth. Results of treating childhood Cushing's disease with pituitary irradiation. N. Engl. J. Med. 297: 957–962, 1977.
 97. Jones, J. I., and D. R. Clemmons. Insulin‐like growth factors and their binding proteins: biologic actions. Endocr. Rev. 16: 3–34, 1995.
 98. Jones, K. L. Smith's Recognizable Patterns of Human Malformation (4th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders, 1988.
 99. Kaiser, B. A., M. S. Polinsky, J. Stover, B. Z. Morgenstern, and H. J. Baluarte. Growth of children following the initiation of dialysis: a comparison of three dialysis modalities. Pediatr. Nephrol. 8: 733–738, 1994.
 100. Kanof, M. E., A. M. Lake, and T. M. Bayless. Decreased height velocity in children and adolescents before the diagnosis of Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology 95: 1523–1527, 1988.
 101. Karlberg, J. A biologically‐oriented mathematical model (ICP) for human growth. Acta Paediatr. Scand. (Suppl.) 350: 70–94, 1989.
 102. Kasa‐Vubu, J. Z., V. Padmanabhan, G. B. Kletter, M. B. Brown, E. O. Reiter, P. C. Sizonenko, and I. Z. Beitins. Serum bioactive luteinizing and follicle‐stimulating hormone concentrations in girls increase during puberty. Pediatr. Res. 34: 829–833, 1993.
 103. Katz, L. E. L., R. G. Rosenfeld, and S. P. Cohen. Clinical significance of insulin‐like growth factor binding proteins (IGFBPs). Endocrinologist 5: 36–43, 1995.
 104. Kelch, R. P., and I. Z. Beitins. Adolescent sexual development. In: The Diagnosis and Treatment of Endocrine Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence (4th ed.), edited by M. S. Kappy, R. M. Blizzard, and C. J. Migeon. Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1994, p. 193–234.
 105. Kerrigan, J. R., P. M. Martha, Jr., R. M. Blizzard, C. M. Christie, and A. D. Rogol. Variations of pulsatile growth hormone release in healthy short prepubertal boys. Pediatr. Res. 28: 11–14, 1990.
 106. Kirschner, B. S., and M. M. Sretton. Somatomedin‐C levels in growth impaired children and adolescents with chronic inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 91: 830–836, 1986.
 107. Kitchen, W. H., L. W. Doyle, G. W. Ford, and C. Callanan. Very low birth‐weight and growth to age 8 years. Am. J. Dis. Child. 146: 40–45, 1992.
 108. Klinefelter, H. F., Jr., E. C. Reifenstein, Jr., and F. Albright. Syndrome characterised by gynecomastia, aspermatogenesis without aleydigism, and increased secretion of follicle‐stimulating hormone. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2: 615, 1942.
 109. Kreiter, M., S. Burstein, R. L. Rosenfield, G. W. Moll, Jr., J. F. Cara, D. K. Yousefzadek, L. Cuttler, and U. Levinsky. Preserving adult height potential in girls with idiopathic true precocious puberty. J. Pediatr. 117: 364–370, 1990.
 110. Labhart, A., and M. Zachman. Clinical physiology of pituitary tumors. Prog. Neurol. Surg. 6: 1, 1975.
 111. LaFranchi, S. Congenital hypothyroidism: a newborn screening success story? Endocrinologist 4: 477–486, 1994.
 112. LaFranchi, S. H., A. F. Parlow, B. M. Lippe, J. Coytupa, and S. Kaplan. Pubertal gynecomastia and transient elevation of serum estradiol level. Am. J. Dis. Child. 129: 927–931, 1975.
 113. Lanes, R. Diagnostic limitations of spontaneous growth hormone measurements in normally growing prepubertal children. Am. J. Dis. Child. 143: 1284–1286, 1989.
 114. Laron, Z. Laron type dwarfism (hereditary somatomedin deficiency): a review. In: Advances in Internal Medicine and Pediatrics. Idelbey, Germany: Springer‐Verlag, 1984, p. 118.
 115. Laron, Z., and B. Klinger. Laron syndrome: clinical features, molecular pathology and treatment. Horm. Res. 42: 198–202, 1994.
 116. Laue, L., W. Chan, A. Hsueh, M. Kudo, S. Y. Hsu, S. M. Wu, L. Blomberg, and G. B. Cutler, Jr. Genetic heterogeneity of constitutively activating mutations of the luteinizing hormone receptor in familial male‐limited precocious puberty. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92: 1906–1910, 1995.
 117. Lee, P. A. The relationship of concentrations of serum hormones to pubertal gynecomastia. J. Pediatr. 86: 212–215, 1975.
 118. Lee, P. A., V. V. Weldon, and C.J. Migeon. Short stature as the only clinical sign of Cushing's syndrome. J. Pediatr. 86: 89–91, 1975.
 119. Levine, R. L. Eating disorders in adolescents: a comprehensive update. Int. Pediatr. 10: 327–335, 1995.
 120. Liddle, G. W. Test of pituitary‐adrenal suppressibility in the diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 20: 1539, 1960.
 121. Lifshitz, F., and N. Moses. Nutritional dwarfing: growth, dieting, and fear of obesity. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 7: 367–376, 1988.
 122. Limony, Y., Z. Zadik, A. K. Pic, and E. Leiberman. Improved method for predicting adult height of pubertal boys using a mathematical model. Horm. Res. 40: 117–122, 1993.
 123. Loche, S., Cambiaso, P., S. Setzu, D. Catra, R. Marini, P. Borrelli, and M. Cappa. Final height after growth hormone therapy in non‐growth‐hormone‐deficient children with short stature. J. Pediatr. 125: 196–200, 1994.
 124. Lohman, T. G. Advances in Body Composition Analysis. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Press, 1992.
 125. Lyon, A. J., M. A. Preece, and D. B. Grant. Growth curve for girls with Turner syndrome. Arch. Dis. Child. 60: 932–935, 1985.
 126. Manser, J. I. Growth in the high risk infant. Clin. Perinatol. 11: 19–40, 1984.
 127. Marfan, A. B. Un cas de deformation congenitale des quatre membres plus prononcee aux extremites characterisee par l'allongement des os avec un certain degre D'amincissement. Bull. Mem. Soc. Med. Hosp. (Paris) 13: 220, 1896.
 128. Martha, P. M., Jr., K. M. Gorman, R. M. Blizzard, A. D. Rogol, and J. D. Veldhuis. Endogenous growth hormone secretion and clearance rates in normal boys, as determined by deconvolution analysis: relationship to age, pubertal status, and body mass. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 74: 336–344, 1992.
 129. Martha, P. M., Jr., A. D. Rogol, J. D. Veldhuis, J. R. Kerrigan, D. W. Goodman, and R. M. Blizzard. Alterations in the pulsatile properties of circulating growth hormone concentrations during puberty in boys. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 69: 563–570, 1989.
 130. Mazess, R. B., H. S. Barden, J. P. Bisek, and J. Hanson. Dual‐energy X‐ray absorptiometry for total body and regional bone mineral and soft tissue composition. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 51: 1106–1112, 1990.
 131. McInnes, R. R., and P. H. Buyers. Biochemical genetics: examples of life after cloning. Curr. Opin. Genet. Devl. 3: 475–483, 1993.
 132. Meredith, H. V. Body weight at birth of viable human infants, a worldwide comparative treatise. Hum. Biol. 42: 217–264, 1970.
 133. Merriam, G. R., and K. W. Wachter. Algorithm for the study of episodic hormone secretion. Am. J. Physiol. 243 (Endocrinol. Metab. 6): E310–E318, 1982.
 134. Miller, H. C., and T. A. Merritt. Fetal Growth in Humans. Chicago: Year Book, 1979, p. 9–24 and 31–56.
 135. Mirlesse, V., F. Frankenne, E. Alsat, M. Poncelet, G. Hennen, and D. Evain‐Brion. Placental growth hormone levels in normal pregnancy and in pregnancies with IUGR. Pediatr. Res. 34: 439–442, 1993.
 136. Moore, W. V., K. C. Moore, R. Gifford, J. G. Hollowell, and D. L. Donaldson. Long‐term treatment of children with short stature and normal growth hormone secretion. J. Pediatr. 120: 702–708, 1992.
 137. Muaku, S. M., V. Beauloye, J. Thissen, L. E. Underwood, C. Fossion, G. Gerard, J. Ketelslegers, and D. Maiter. Long‐term effects of gestational protein malnutrition on postnatal growth, insulin‐like growth factor (IGF)‐I, and IGF‐binding proteins in rat progeny. Pediatr. Res. 39: 649–655, 1966.
 138. Naerra, R. W., and J. Nielson. Standards for growth and final height in Turner's syndrome. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 79: 182–190, 1990.
 139. Nasiff, E., M. Weinberger, B. Sherman, and K. Brown. Extrapulmonary effects of maintenance corticosteroid therapy with alternate day prednisone and inhaled beclomethasone in children with chronic asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 80: 518–528, 1987.
 140. Neely, E. K., R. L. Hintz, D. M. Wilson, P. A. Lee, T. Gautier, J. Argente, and M. Stene. Normal ranges for immunochemiluminometric gonadotropin assays. J. Pediatr. 127: 40–46, 1995.
 141. Neely, E. K., and R. G. Rosenfeld. Turner syndrome. In: Pediatric Endocrinology (3rd ed.), edited by F. Lifschitz. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1996, p. 267–280.
 142. New, M. I., J. M. Gertner, P. W. Speiser, and P. del Balzo. Growth and final height in classical and nonclassical 21‐hydroxylase deficiency. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 12: 91–95, 1990.
 143. New, M. I., L. Ghizzoni, and P. W. Speiser. Update on congenital adrenal hyperplasia. In: Pediatric Endocrinology (3rd ed.), edited by F. Lifschitz. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1996, p. 305–320.
 144. Niklasson, A., A. Ericson, J. Fryer, J. Karlberg, C. Lawrence, and P. Karlberg. An update of the Swedish Reference Standards for weight, length and head circumference at birth for given gestational age (1977–1981; n = 476, 588). Acta Paediatr. Scand. 80: 756–762, 1991.
 145. Ninan, T. K., and G. Russell. Asthma, inhaled corticosteroid treatment, and growth. Arch. Dis. Child. 67: 703–705, 1992.
 146. Olivie, M. A. A., R. V. Garcia‐Mayor, D. G. Leston, T. R. Sousa, A. S. Dominguez, R. Alvarez‐Novoa, and J. A. Cortizas. Serum insulin‐like growth factor (IGF) binding protein‐3 and IGF‐I levels during childhood and adolescence. A cross‐sectional study. Pediatr. Res. 38: 149–155, 1995.
 147. Osier, M., and J. Pederson. The body composition of newborn infants of diabetic mothers. Pediatrics 26: 985–992, 1960.
 148. Ounsted, M. Trajectories of growth. Am. J. Dis. Child. 131: 1076–1077, 1977.
 149. Palmer, C. G., and A. Reichman. Chromosomal and clinical findings in 110 females with Turner syndrome. Hum. Genet. 35: 35–42, 1976.
 150. Park, E., J. D. Baily, and C. A. Cowell. Growth and maturation of patients with Turner's syndrome. Pediatr. Res. 17: 1–7, 1983.
 151. Parker, D. C., J. F. Sassin, J. W. Mace, R. W. Gotlin, and L. G. Rossman. Human growth hormone release during sleep: electroencephalographic correlation. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 29: 871–874, 1969.
 152. Patel, L., A. M. Skinner, D. A. Price, and P. E. Clayton. The influence of body mass index on growth hormone secretion in normal and short statured children. Growth Regul. 4: 29–34, 1994.
 153. Pescovitz, O. H., F. Comite, K. Hench, K. Barnes, A. McNemar, C. Foster, D. Kenigsberg, L. Loriaux, and G. B. Cutler, Jr. The NIH experience with precocious puberty: diagnostic subgroups and response to short‐term luteinizing hormone releasing hormone analogue therapy. J. Pediatr. 108: 47–54, 1986.
 154. Ping, A. J., A. E. Reeve, D. J. Law, M. R. Young, M. Boehnke, and A. P. Feinberg. Genetic linkage of Beckwith‐Wiedemann syndrome to 11p15. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 44: 720–723, 1989.
 155. Postel‐Vinay, M. C., A. Tar, H. Crosnier, M. Broyer, R. Rappaport, B. Tonshoff, and O. Mehls. Plasma growth hormone–binding activity is low in uraemic serum. Pediatr. Nephrol. 5: 545–547, 1991.
 156. Powell, D. R., F. Liu, B. Baker, P. D. Lee, C. W. Belsha, E. D. Brewer, and R. L. Hintz. Characterization of insulin‐like growth factor binding protein 3 in chronic renal failure serum. Pediatr. Res. 33: 136–143, 1993.
 157. Prader, A. Testicular size: assessment and clinical importance. Triangle 7: 240–243, 1966.
 158. Preece, M. A. The assessment of growth. In: Progress in Growth Hormone Therapy—5 Years of KIGS, edited by M. B. Ranke and R. Gunnarsson. Mannheim: J. J. Verlag, 1994, p. 10–36.
 159. Preece, M. A., L. Greco, M. D. Savage, N. Cameron, and J. M. Tanner. The auxology of growth delay. Pediatrics 15: 76, 1981.
 160. Price, J. F. Asthma, growth and inhaled corticosteroids. Respir. Med. 87: 23–26, 1993.
 161. Pyeritz, R. E., and V. A. McKusick. The Marfan syndrome. Diagnosis and management. N. Engl. J. Med. 300: 772–777, 1979.
 162. Rallison, M. L. Growth Disorders in Infants, Children, and Adolescents. New York: Wiley, 1986.
 163. Ranke, M. B., and A. S. Aronson. Adult height in children with constitutional short stature. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 362: 27–31, 1989.
 164. Rasmussen, M. H., A. Hvidberg, A. Juul, K. M. Main, A. Gotfredsen, N. E. Skakkebae, and J. Hilsted. Massive weight loss restores 24‐hour growth hormone release profiles and serum insulin‐like growth factor‐1 levels in obese subjects. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 80: 1407–1415, 1995.
 165. Ratcliffe, S. G., J. Bancroft, D. Axworthy, and W. McLaren. Klinefelter's syndrome in adolescence. Arch. Dis. Child. 57: 6–12, 1982.
 166. Rees, L., S. P. Rigden, and C. Chantler. The influence of steroid therapy and recombinant human erythropoietin on the growth of children with renal disease. Pediatr. Nephrol. 5: 556–558, 1991.
 167. Reilly, J. J., J. Wilson, J. H. McColl, M. Carmichael, and J. V.G. A. Durnin. Ability of bioelectric impedance to predict fat‐free mass in prepubertal children. Pediatr. Res. 39: 176–179, 1996.
 168. Rivkees, S. A., H. H. Bode, and J. D. Crawford. Long‐term growth in juvenile acquired hypothyroidism: the failure to achieve normal adult stature. N. Engl. J. Med. 318: 599–602, 1988.
 169. Rizzoni, G., M. Broyer, F. P. Brunner, H. Brynger, S. Challah, P. Kramer, R. Oules, N. H. Selwood, A. J. Wing, and E. A. Balas. Combined report on regular dialysis and transplantation of children in Europe. Proc. Eur. Dial. Transplant Assoc. Eur. Renal. Assoc. 21: 66–95, 1985.
 170. Roberts, W. C., and H. S. Honig. The spectrum of cardiovascular disease in the Marfan syndrome: a clinico‐morphologic study of 18 necropsy patients and comparison to 151 previously reported necropsy patients. Am. Heart J. 104: 115–135, 1982.
 171. Robson, J. R. K., F. A. Larkin, J. H. Bursick, and K. P. Perri. Growth standards for infants and children: a cross‐sectional study. Pediatrics 56: 1014–1020, 1975.
 172. Roche, A. F., W. C. Chumlea, and D. Thissen. Assessing the Skeletal Maturity of the Hand‐Wrist: Pels Method. Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1988.
 173. Roche, A. F., H. Wainer, and D. Thissen. The RWT method for the prediction of adult stature. Pediatrics 56: 1027–1033, 1975.
 174. Roemmich, J. N., R. M. Blizzard, S. D. Peddada, R. M. Malina, A. F. Roche, J. M. Tanner, and A. D. Rogol. Longitudinal assessment of hormonal and physical alterations during normal puberty in boys. IV: Predictions of adult height by the Bayley‐Pinneau, Roche‐Wainer‐Thissen, and Tanner‐Whitehouse methods compared. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 9: 371–380, 1997.
 175. Rogol, A. D., T.J. Breen, and K. M. Attie. National Cooperative Growth Study Substudy II: Do growth hormone levels from serial sampling add important diagnostic information? J. Pediatr. 128: S42–S46, 1996.
 176. Rogol, A. D., and E. L. Lawton. Body measurements. In: Pediatric Outpatient Procedures, edited by J. A. Lohr. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1991, p. 1–9.
 177. Rolland‐Cachera, M. F., T. J. Cole, M. Sempe, J. Tichet, C. Rossignol, and A. Charraud. Body mass index variations: centres from birth to 87 years. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 45: 13–21, 1991.
 178. Root, A. W. Serum polypeptide hormone–binding proteins part 2: insulin‐like growth factor‐binding proteins. Growth Genet. Horm. 10: 7–10, 1994.
 179. Rose, S. R., G. Municchi, K. M. Barnes, and G. B. Cutler, Jr. Overnight growth hormone concentrations are usually normal in pubertal children with idiopathic short stature: a clinical research center study. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 81: 1063–1068, 1996.
 180. Rose, S. R., J. L. Ross, M. Uriarte, K. M. Barnes, F. G. Cassorla, and G. B. Cutler, Jr. The advantage of measuring stimulated as compared with spontaneous growth hormone levels in the diagnosis of growth hormone deficiency. N. Engl. J. Med. 319: 201–207, 1988.
 181. Rosenfeld, R. G., K. Albertsson‐Wikland, F. Cassorla, S. D. Frasier, Y. Hasegawa, R. L. Hintz, S. Lafranchi, B. Lippe, L. Loriaux, and S. Melmed. Diagnostic controversy: the diagnosis of childhood growth hormone deficiency revisited. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 80: 1532–1540, 1995.
 182. Rosenfeld, R. G., K. M. Attie, J. Frane. and the National Cooperative Growth Study. Growth hormone therapy of Turner syndrome: effect on final height. J. Pediatr. 132: 319–324, 1998.
 183. Rosenfeld, R. G., J. Frane, K. M. Attie, J. A. Brasel, S. Burstein, J. F. Cara, S. Chernausek, R. W. Gotlin, J. Kuntze, B. M. Lippe, P. C. Mahoney, W. V. Moore, P. Saenger, and A. J. Johanson. Six‐year results of a randomized, prospective trial of human growth hormone and oxandrolone in Turner syndrome. J. Pediatr. 121: 49–55, 1992.
 184. Rosenfeld, R. G., G. B. Northcraft, and R. L. Hintz. A prospective, randomized study of testosterone treatment of constitutional delay of growth and development in male adolescents. Pediatrics 69: 681–687, 1982.
 185. Ross, G., E. G. Lipper, and P. A. M. Auld. Growth achievement of very low birth weight premature children at school age. J. Pediatr. 117: 307–309, 1990.
 186. Ruiz, R. G., and J. F. Price. Growth and adrenal responsiveness with budesonide in young asthmatics. Respir. Med. 88: 17–20, 1994.
 187. Schafer, F., C. Seidel, A. Binding, T. Gasser, R. H. Largo, A. Prader, and K. Scharer. Pubertal growth in chronic renal failure. Pediatr. Res. 28: 5–10, 1990.
 188. Seidell, J. C., C.J. G. Bakker, and K. van der Kooy. Imaging techniques for measuring adipose‐tissue distribution—a comparison between computed tomography and 1,5‐T magnetic resonance. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 51: 953–957, 1990.
 189. Selvik, G., P. Albirius, and A. S. Aronson. A roentgen stereophotogrammetric system. Construction, calibration and technical accuracy. Acta Radiol. Diagn. 24: 343–351, 1983.
 190. Shenker, A., L. Laue, S. Kosugi, J. J. Merendino, Jr., T. Minegishi, and G. B. Cutler, Jr. A constitutively activating mutation of the luteinizing hormone receptor in familial male precocious puberty. Nature 365: 652–654, 1993.
 191. Shih, K. C., L. T. Ho, H. F. Kuo, T. C. Chang, P. C. Liu, C. K. Chen, and C. M. Tiu. Linear growth response to recombinant human growth hormone in children with growth hormone deficiency. Chin. Med. J. (Engl.) 54: 7–13, 1994.
 192. Simon, F. A., and R. E. Stevenson. Pediatric Patient Care. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975.
 193. Sinning, W. E. Body composition analysis for body densitometry. In: NAGWS Research Reports, edited by M. Adrian and J. Brame. Washington, D.C.: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 1977, Vol. III, p. 138–152.
 194. Siri, W. E. Body composition from fluid spaces and density: analysis of methods. In: Techniques for Measuring Body Composition, edited by J. Brozek and A. Henschel. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1961, p. 223–224.
 195. Skuse, D. H. Emotional abuse and delay in growth. BMJ 299: 113–115, 1989.
 196. Smith, D. W. Growth and Its Disorders. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1977.
 197. Smith, D. W. Recognizable Patterns of Human Malformation (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders, 1982.
 198. Sotos, J. F., P. R. Dodge, D. Muirhead, J. D. Crawford, and N. B. Talbot. Cerebral giantism in childhood: a syndrome of excessively rapid growth with acromegalic features and a nonprogressive neurologic disorder. N. Engl. J. Med. 271: 109, 1964.
 199. Spitz, L., R. V. C. Bhargava, D. B. Grant, and J. V. Leonard. Surgical treatment of hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia in infancy and childhood. Arch. Dis. Child. 67: 201–205, 1992.
 200. Stablein, D. M. Annual report 1992: North American Pediatric Renal Transplant Cooperative Study (NAPRTCS). Program, the Annual NAPRTCS Meeting, Vancouver, Canada, October, 1992.
 201. Stanhope, R., and C. D. G. Brook. Thelarche variant: a new syndrome of precocious sexual maturation? Acta Endocrinol. (Copenh.) 123: 481–486, 1990.
 202. Streeten, D. H. P., F. H. Faas, M. J. Elders, T. G. Dalakos, and M. Voorhess. Hypercortisolism in childhood: shortcomings of conventional diagnostic criteria. Pediatrics 56: 797–803, 1975.
 203. Tanner, J. M. Growth at Adolescence (2nd ed.). Oxford: Black‐well, 1962.
 204. Tanner, J. M. Fetus into Man: Physical Growth from Conception to Maturity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989.
 205. Tanner, J. M., and P. S. W. Davies. Clinical longitudinal standards for height and height velocity for North American children. J. Pediatr. 107: 317–329, 1985.
 206. Tanner, J. M. and R. D. Gibbons. A computerized image analysis system for estimating Tanner‐Whitehouse 2 bone age. Horm. Res. 42 (6): 282–287, 1994.
 207. Tanner, J. M., R. H. Whitehouse, N. Cameron, W. A. Marshall, M.J. R. Healy, and H. Goldstein. Assessment of Skeletal Maturity and Prediction of Adult Height (2nd ed.). London: Academic, 1983.
 208. Tanner, J. M., R. H. Whitehouse, W. A. Marshall, and B. S. Carter. Prediction of adult height, bone age, and occurrence of menarche, at ages 4 to 16 with allowance for midparental height. Arch. Dis. Child. 50: 14–26, 1975.
 209. Tanner, J. M., R. H. Whitehouse, W. A. Marshall, M. J. R. Healy, and H. Goldstein. Assessment of Skeletal Maturity and Prediction of Adult Height. London: Academic, 1975.
 210. Tanner, J. M., R. H. Whitehouse, and M. Takaishi. Standards from birth to maturity for height, weight, height velocity and weight velocity for British children (1965), parts I and II. Arch. Dis. Child. 41: 454–471 and 613–635, 1966.
 211. Therman, E., and B. Susman. The similarity of phenotypic effects caused by Xp and Xq deletions in the human female: a hypothesis. Hum. Genet. 85: 175–183, 1990.
 212. Thomson, A. M., W. Z. Billewiez, and F. E. Hytten. The assessment of fetal growth. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. (Br. Commwlth.) 75: 903–916, 1968.
 213. Tsang, R. C., L. I. Kleinman, J. M. Sutherland, and J. Light. Hypocalcemia in infants of diabetic mothers: studies in calcium, phosphorus and magnesium and metabolism and parathormone responsiveness. J. Pediatr. 80: 384–395, 1972.
 214. Van Renen, M. J., R. J. Hogg, A. L. Sweeney, P. H. Henning, J. L. Penfold, and K. F. Jureidini. Accelerated growth in short children with chronic renal failure treated with both strict dietary therapy and recombinant growth hormone. Pediatr. Nephrol. 6: 451–458, 1992.
 215. Veldhuis, J. D., and M. L. Johnson. Cluster analysis: a simple, versatile and robust algorithm for endocrine pulse detection. Am. J. Physiol. 250 (Endocrinol. Metab. 13): E486–E493, 1986.
 216. Veldhuis, J. D., and M. L. Johnson. Deconvolution analysis of hormone data. Methods Enzymol. 210: 539–575, 1992.
 217. Vohr, B. R., L. P. Lipsitt, and W. Oh. Somatic growth of children of diabetic mothers with reference to birth size. J. Pediatr. 97: 196–199, 1980.
 218. Wales, J. K. H., M. D. Barnes, and P. G. P. Swift. Growth retardation in children on steroids for asthma. Lancet 338: 1535, 1991.
 219. Wales, J. K. H., and A. T. Gibson. Short term growth: rhythms, chaos, or noise? Arch. Dis. Child. 71: 84–89, 1994.
 220. Wales, J. K. H., S. M. Herber, and L. S. Taitz. Height and body proportions in child abuse. Arch. Dis. Child. 67: 632–635, 1992.
 221. Ward, J. C. Inborn errors of metabolism of acute onset in infancy. Pediatr. Rev. 11: 205–216, 1990.
 222. Warshaw, J. B. Intrauterine growth retardation. In: Pediatric Endocrinology (3rd ed.), edited by F. Lifshitz. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1996, p. 95–100.
 223. Whitaker, M. D., B. W. Scheithauer, A. B. Hayles, and H. Okazaki. The hypothalamus and pituitary in cerebral giantism: a clinicopathologic and immunocytochemical study. Am. J. Dis. Child. 139: 679–682, 1985.
 224. Whitehouse, R. H., J. M. Tanner, and M. J. R. Healy. Diurnal variation in stature and sitting height in 12–24 year old boys. Ann. Hum. Biol. 1: 103, 1974.
 225. Williams, T., M. Berelowitz, S. N. Joffe, M. O. Thorner, J. Rivier, W. Vale, and L. A. Frohman. Impaired growth hormone responses to growth hormone–releasing factor in obesity. N. Engl. J. Med. 311: 1403–1407, 1984.
 226. Wilmore, J. H. A simplified method for the determination of residual lung volume. J. Appl. Physiol. 27: 96–100, 1969.
 227. Wit, J. M., G. A. Kamp, and B. Rikken. Spontaneous growth and response to growth hormone treatment in children with growth hormone deficiency and idiopathic short stature. Pediatr. Res. 39: 295–302, 1996.
 228. Wolf, E., R. Kramer, W. Blum, J. Foll, and G. Brem. Consequences of postnatally elevated insulin‐like growth factor‐II in transgenic mice: endocrine changes and effects on body and organ growth. Endocrinology 135: 1877–1886, 1994.
 229. Wolf, E., R. Wanke, W. Hermanns, G. Brem, F. Pirchner, and I. von Butler‐Wemken. Growth characteristics of metallothionein‐human growth hormone transgenic mice as compared to mice selected for high eight‐week body weight and unselected controls. Growth Dev. Aging 55: 225–235, 1991.
 230. Wolthers, O. D., and S. Pedersen. Controlled study of linear growth in asthmatic children during treatment with inhaled glucocorticoids. Pediatrics 89: 839–842, 1992.
 231. Wu, F. C. W. GnRH pulse generator activity during human puberty. In: The Neurobiology of Puberty, edited by T. M. Plant and P. A. Lee. Bristol: Journal of Endocrinology, 1995, p. 185–197.
 232. Zachmann, M., S. Studer, and A. Prader. Short term testosterone treatment at bone age 12–13 years does not reduce adult height. Helv. Paediatr. Acta 42: 21–28, 1987.
 233. Zadik, Z., S. A. Chalew, and A. Kowarski. The definition of a spontaneous growth hormone (GH) peak: studies in normally growing and GH‐deficient children. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 74: 801–805, 1992.
 234. Zantleifer, D., S. Awadalla, and R. Brauner. Growth response to growth hormone during the first year as a diagnosis criterion of growth hormone deficiency. Horm. Res. 40: 123–127, 1993.

Contact Editor

Submit a note to the editor about this article by filling in the form below.

* Required Field

Article Title: Somatic Growth and its Regulation
 

How to Cite

Pamela A. Clark, Alan D. Rogol. Somatic Growth and its Regulation. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 24: Handbook of Physiology, The Endocrine System, Hormonal Control of Growth: 37-72. First published in print 1999. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp070502