Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library

Bone Storage and Release

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Bone Structure
2 Skeletal Uptake of Foreign Ions: Their Migration and Release
3 Skeletal Metabolism of Selected Airborne Contaminants
3.1 Fluoride
3.2 Lead
4 Summary
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Sequence of cellular events in bone remodeling unit on endosteal bone surface. Initial step (left) is activation of mesenchymal cells (MC) to become osteoprogenitor cells (OP), which by further division become preosteoclasts (PC), which then fuse to become osteoclasts (OC). These eventually undergo modulation to become preosteoblasts (PB), which go on to become osteoblasts (OB), which after completing their synthetic function become osteocytes (O). Once the sequence of events has transpired, osteocytes in a bone metabolic unit function in maintaining mineral homeostasis. In carrying out this function, they recapitulate, in a sense, a similar cell cycle of resorption (osteoclastic osteocyte — OCO) and formation (osteoblastic osteocyte — OBO). In severe hyperparathyroidism the osteoclastic phase of the osteocytic cell cycle may be exaggerated to the point where several adjacent osteocytes (O) remove all the bone between them, and then fuse to become osteoclasts (OC).

From Rasmussen & Bordier 50
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Diagram of cross section of adult cortical bone to indicate arrangement of Haversian canals, resorption cavities, osteocytes with their canaliculi, and the different cells lining bone surfaces. Left, periosteal surface; right, endosteal surface.

From Vaughan 58, p. 3
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Cross‐sectional representation of hydroxyapatite crystal in aqueous suspension.

From Neuman & Neuman 45, p. 63
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Increase in fluoride content (mg F per 100 g dried fat‐free material) in human rib bone up to the 6th decade and its relation to the amount of fluoride in drinking water.

From Jackson & Weidmann 31
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Fluoride concentrations in human bone ash of lifetime residents of a low‐fluoride area.

From Hodge & Smith 23, p. 518
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Concentration of fluoride in postmortem samples of human bone taken from persons resident in the West Riding of Yorkshire (fluoride content of drinking water < 0.1 ppm). (a) Compact cortical bone from femoral diaphysis. (b) Compact cortical bone from rib. (c) Cancellous bone from rib.

From Weatherall 60
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Mobilization of skeletal fluoride in man.

From Hodge, Smith, and Gedalia 25
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Model for lead exchange by man with his environment. See subsection RELEASE OF LEAD FIXED IN BONE for source of assigned values.



Figure 1.

Sequence of cellular events in bone remodeling unit on endosteal bone surface. Initial step (left) is activation of mesenchymal cells (MC) to become osteoprogenitor cells (OP), which by further division become preosteoclasts (PC), which then fuse to become osteoclasts (OC). These eventually undergo modulation to become preosteoblasts (PB), which go on to become osteoblasts (OB), which after completing their synthetic function become osteocytes (O). Once the sequence of events has transpired, osteocytes in a bone metabolic unit function in maintaining mineral homeostasis. In carrying out this function, they recapitulate, in a sense, a similar cell cycle of resorption (osteoclastic osteocyte — OCO) and formation (osteoblastic osteocyte — OBO). In severe hyperparathyroidism the osteoclastic phase of the osteocytic cell cycle may be exaggerated to the point where several adjacent osteocytes (O) remove all the bone between them, and then fuse to become osteoclasts (OC).

From Rasmussen & Bordier 50


Figure 2.

Diagram of cross section of adult cortical bone to indicate arrangement of Haversian canals, resorption cavities, osteocytes with their canaliculi, and the different cells lining bone surfaces. Left, periosteal surface; right, endosteal surface.

From Vaughan 58, p. 3


Figure 3.

Cross‐sectional representation of hydroxyapatite crystal in aqueous suspension.

From Neuman & Neuman 45, p. 63


Figure 4.

Increase in fluoride content (mg F per 100 g dried fat‐free material) in human rib bone up to the 6th decade and its relation to the amount of fluoride in drinking water.

From Jackson & Weidmann 31


Figure 5.

Fluoride concentrations in human bone ash of lifetime residents of a low‐fluoride area.

From Hodge & Smith 23, p. 518


Figure 6.

Concentration of fluoride in postmortem samples of human bone taken from persons resident in the West Riding of Yorkshire (fluoride content of drinking water < 0.1 ppm). (a) Compact cortical bone from femoral diaphysis. (b) Compact cortical bone from rib. (c) Cancellous bone from rib.

From Weatherall 60


Figure 7.

Mobilization of skeletal fluoride in man.

From Hodge, Smith, and Gedalia 25


Figure 8.

Model for lead exchange by man with his environment. See subsection RELEASE OF LEAD FIXED IN BONE for source of assigned values.

References
 1. Aub, J. C., L. T. Fairhill, A. S. Minot, and P. Reznikoff. Lead Poisoning. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1926. (Medicine Monographs VII.)
 2. Bagchi, K. N., H. D. Ganguly, and J. N. Sidar. Lead in human tissues. Indian J. Med. Res. 26: 935–945, 1939.
 3. Barry, P. S. I. A comparison of lead concentrations in human bones and in soft tissues. In: Proc., Int. Symp. Environ. Health Aspects Lead, Amsterdam, Oct. 2‐6, 1972. Luxembourg: Comm. European Communities, Directorate Gen. Dissemination Knowledge, Center Inform. Doc. 1973, p. 415–426.
 4. Barry, P. S. I., and D. B. Mossman. Lead concentrations in human tissues. Brit. J. Ind. Med. 27: 339–351, 1970.
 5. Black, S. C. Storage and excretion of lead‐210 in dogs. Arch. Environ. Health 5: 423–429, 1962.
 6. Black, S. C., V. E. Archer, W. C. Dixon, and G. Saccomanno. Correlation of radiation exposure and lead‐210 in uranium miners. Health Phys. 14: 81–93, 1968.
 7. Blanchard, R. L., V. E. Archer, and G. Saccomanno. Blood and skeletal levels of 210Pb‐210Po as a measure of exposure to inhaled radon daughter products. Health Phys. 16: 585–596, 1969.
 8. Bogen, D. C. Stable lead investigations at HASL. Proc. Bioassay and Analytical Chemistry Meeting, 13th Annual, Berkeley, Oct. 1967. Univ. Calif. Rept. UCRL‐18140, p. 3–12, 1967.
 9. Booker, D. V., A. C. Chamberlain, D. Newton, and A. N. B. Scott. Distribution of radioactive lead following inhalation and injection. Brit. J. Radiol. 42: 457–466, 1969.
 10. Call, R. A., D. A. Greenwood, W. H. Cheminant, J. L. Shupe, H. M. Nielson, L. E. Olson, R. E. Lamborn, F. L. Mangelson, and R. V. Davis. Histological and chemical studies in man on effects of fluoride. Publ. Health Rept. U.S. 80: 529–538, 1965.
 11. Carlson, C. H., W. D. Armstrong, and L. Singer. Distribution and excretion of radiofluoride in the human. Proc. Soc. Exptl. Biol. Med. 104: 235–239, 1960.
 12. Cholak, J. Current information on the quantities of fluoride found in air, food, and water. A.M.A. Arch. Ind. Health 21: 312–315, 1960.
 13. Crawford, M. D., and T. Crawford. Lead content of bones in a soft and hard water area. Lancet 1: 699–701, 1969.
 14. Duckworth, R. Distribution and excretion of dentifrice fluoride. Nature 204: 489–490, 1964.
 15. Frost, H. M. Specific surface and specific volume of normal human lamellar bone. Henry Ford Hosp. Med. Bull. 10: 35–41, 1962.
 16. Frost, H. M. Bone Remodelling Dynamics. Springfield, III.: Thomas, 1963, p. 14.
 17. Frost, H. M. The dynamics of osteoid tissue. In: L'ostiomalacie, edited by D. J. Hioco. Tours, 1965, p. 3–18. [Cited by J. M. Vaughan, The Physiology of Bone. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970, p. 4.]
 18. Gardner, D. E., F. A. Smith, H. C Hodge, F. Brudevold, and D. McG. Eldridge. Distribution of fluoride in the normal dog femur. J. Appl. Physiol. 14: 427–430, 1959.
 19. Garn, S. M. The Earlier Gain and the Later Loss of Cortical Bone in Nutritional Perspective. Springfield, III: Thomas, 1970, pp. 94–96.
 20. Gitelman, H. J., and W. F. Neuman. Lead‐Hydroxy Apatite Interaction. Rochester, N. Y.: Univ. of Rochester Atomic Energy Proj. 1959, rept. UR‐551.
 21. Henderson, D. A., and J. A. Inglis. Lead content of bone in chronic Bright's disease. Australasian Ann. Med. 6: 145–154, 1957.
 22. Hodge, H. C., and F. A. Smith. Biological properties of inorganic fluorides. In: Fluorine Chemistry, edited by J. H. Simons. New York: Academic Press, 1965, vol. iv, p. 155.
 23. Hodge, H. C., and F. A. Smith. Effects of fluorides on bones and teeth. In: Fluorine Chemistry, edited by J. H. Simons. New York: Academic Press, 1965, vol. iv, p. 518.
 24. Hodge, H. C., and F. A. Smith. Quality criteria for the effects of fluorides on man. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. 20: 226–232, 1970.
 25. Hodge, H. C., F. A. Smith, and I. Gedalia. Excretion of fluorides. In: Fluorides and Human Health. Geneva: World Health Organiz. 1970, p. 158.
 26. Holtzman, R. B. Critique on the half‐lives of lead and RaD in the human body. Argonne Natl. Lab. Rept. ANL‐6297, 1960, p. 67–80.
 27. Holtzman, R. B., H. F. Lucas, and F. H. Ilcewicz. The concentration of lead in human bone. Argonne Natl. Lab. Rept. ANL‐7615, 1968, 43–49.
 28. Horuichi, K., S. Horiguchi, and M. Suekane. Studies on industrial lead poisoning. Osaka City Med. J. 5: 41–70, 1959.
 29. Hursh, J. B., and T. T. Mercer. Measurement of 212Pb loss rate from human lungs. J. Appl. Physiol. 28: 268–274, 1970.
 30. Hursh, J. B., and J. Suomela. Absorption of 212Pb from the gastrointestinal tract of man. Acta Radiol. 7: 108–120, 1968.
 31. Jackson, D., and S. M. Weidmann. Fluorine in human bone related to age and the water supply of different regions. J. Pathol. Bacteriol. 76: 451–459, 1958.
 32. Jaworowski, Z. Studies on the half‐lives and effective equilibrium of RaD (210Pb) and RaF (210Po) in dogs. Bull. Acad. Polon. Sci. Ser. Sci. Biol. 35: 439–445, 1965.
 33. Jaworowski, Z. Stable and Radioactive Lead in Environment and the Human Body. Warsaw: Nuclear Information Center, 1967.
 34. Kehoe, R. A. Exposure to lead. Occupational Med. 3: 156–171, 1947.
 35. Kehoe, R. A. Normal metabolism of lead. Arch. Environ. Health 8: 232–235, 1964.
 36. Lanzola, E., M. Allegrini, and F. Breuer. Lead levels in infant food sold on the Italian market. In: Proc. Int. Symp. Environ. Health Aspects Lead, Amsterdam, Oct. 2‐6, 1972. Luxembourg: Comm. European Communities, Directorate Gen. Dissemination Knowledge, Center Inform. Doc., 1973, p. 333–344.
 37. Likins, R. C., F. J. McClure, and A. C. Steere. Urinary excretion of fluoride following defluoridation of a water supply. Publ. Health. Rept. U.S. 71: 217–220, 1956.
 38. Losee, F. L., T. W. Cutress, and R. Brown. Natural elements of the periodic table in human dental enamel. Caries Res. 8: 123–134, 1974.
 39. Ludwig, J. H., D. R. Diggs, H. E. Hesselberg, and J. A. Maga. Survey of lead in the atmosphere of three urban communities: a summary. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 26: 270–284, 1965.
 40. MacDonald, N. S., F. Ezmirlian, P. Spain, and C. M. McArthur. The ultimate site of skeletal deposition of strontium and lead. J. Biol. Chem. 189: 387–399, 1951.
 41. Martin, A. E., and C. M. Jones. Some medical considerations regarding atmospheric fluorides. HSMHA Health Rept. 86: 752–758, 1971.
 42. Matumoto, Y., and S. Mizuno. Rate of the blood flow in the femoral head—a new measuring procedure and its clinical evaluation. Med. J. Osaka Univ. 16, 431–463, 1966. (Quoted in Shim, S. S., reference 52.)
 43. NAS/NRC Committee on Biologic Effects of Atmospheric Pollutants. Fluorides. Washington, D.C.: Nat. Res. Council‐Nat. Acad. Sci. 1971.
 44. NAS/NRC Committee on Biologic Effects of Atmospheric Pollutants. Lead: Airborne Lead in Perspective. Washington, D.C.: Nat. Res. Council‐Nat. Acad. Sci., 1972.
 45. Neuman, W. F., and M. W. Neuman. The Chemical Dynamics of Bone Mineral. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1958.
 46. Nusbaum, R. E., E. M. Butt, T. C. Gilmour, and S. L. DiDio. Relation of air pollutants to trace metals in bone. Arch. Environ. Health 10: 227–232, 1965.
 47. Patterson, C. Contaminated and natural lead environments of man. Arch. Environ. Health 11: 344–360, 1965.
 48. Posner, A. S. Bone mineral on the molecular level. Federation Proc. 32: 1933–1937, 1973.
 49. Proceedings, Intern. Symp. Environ. Health Aspects Lead, Amsterdam, Oct. 2‐6, 1972. Luxembourg: Comm. European Communities, Directorate Gen. Dissemination Knowledge, Center Inform. Doc., 1973.
 50. Rasmussen, H., and P. Bordier. The cellular basis of metabolic bone disease. New Engl. J. Med. 289: 25–32, 1973.
 51. Schroeder, H. A., and I. H. Tipton. The human body burden of lead. Arch. Environ. Health 17: 965–978, 1968.
 52. Shim, S. S. Physiology of blood circulation of bone. J. Bone Joint Surg. 50a: 812–824, 1968.
 53. Smith, F. A., and D. E. Gardner. In: Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. Pharmacology of Fluorides, edited by F. A. Smith. New York: Springer‐Verlag, 1966, vol. xx, pt. 1, p. 91–92.
 54. Thompson, R. J., T. B. McMullen, and G. B. Morgan. Fluoride concentrations in the ambient air. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. 21: 484–487, 1971.
 55. Tompsett, S. L. The distribution of lead in human bones. Biochem. J. 30: 345–346, 1936.
 56. Tompsett, S. L., and A. B. Anderson. The lead content of human tissues and excreta. Biochem. J. 29: 1851–1864, 1935.
 57. U.S. Public Health Serv., Div. Air Pollution. Air Pollution Measurements of the National Air Sampling Networks; Analyses of Suspended Particulates, 1957‐1961. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1962. (Public Health Serv. Publ. 978.)
 58. Vaughan, J. M. The Physiology of Bone. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970.
 59. Vaughan, J. M. The Effects of Irradiation on the Skeleton. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973.
 60. Weatherell, J. A. Uptake and distribution of fluoride in bones and teeth and the development of fluorosis. In: Mineral Metabolism in Paediatrics, edited by D. Barltrop and W. L. Burland. Oxford: Blackwell Sci. Publ. 1969, pp. 53–70.
 61. Weidmann, S. M., and J. A. Weatherell. The uptake and distribution of fluorine in bones. J. Pathol. Bacteriol. 78: 243–255, 1959.
 62. Zahradnik, R., R. Rericha, P. Azamit, M. Rezabkova, and S. Skramovsky. Über die Reaktion einiger Kationen von Schwermetallen mit weniglöslichen Calcium verbindungen. Collection Czech. Chem. Commun. 25: 146–158, 1960.
 63. Zipkin, I., F. J. McClure, N. C. Leone, and W. A. Lee. Fluoride deposition in human bones after prolonged ingestion of fluoride in drinking water. Publ. Health Rept. U.S. 73: 732–740, 1958.

Contact Editor

Submit a note to the editor about this article by filling in the form below.

* Required Field

How to Cite

Frank A. Smith, John B. Hursh. Bone Storage and Release. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 26: Handbook of Physiology, Reactions to Environmental Agents: 469-482. First published in print 1977. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp090129