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Vertebrate Nervous System

Philip S. Ulinski

10.1002/cphy.cp130102

Source: Supplement 30: Handbook of Physiology, Comparative Physiology

Originally published: 1997

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 How Many Parts Does the Nervous System Have?
1.1 Early Development of the Nervous System
1.2 Body and Brain Segments
1.3 Neurogenetic Compartments
1.4 Cell Lineage Clusters
1.5 Brain and Body Size
2 How is Sensory Information Represented in the Brain?
2.1 Receptor‐Based Maps
2.2 Evolution of Receptor‐Based Maps
2.3 Constructed Maps
2.4 Distributed Representations
3 How Are Movements Generated and Controlled?
3.1 Reflexes
3.2 Central Pattern Generators
3.3 Orienting Movements
3.4 Ongoing Movements
3.5 Grasping Movements
4 How Are Different Kinds of Information Integrated in the Pallium?
4.1 Association Cortex and Pallial Organization
4.2 Categorizing Sequences
4.3 Cognitive Maps
5 Traditional Hypotheses of Vertebrate Brain Evolution Reconsidered
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Examples of brains from several different vertebrates are shown to illustrate general morphology. Brains are shown at approximately the same apparent size but at very different scales. A: Brain of a bowfin, Amia calva. B: Dogfish shark, Squalus acanthias. C: Bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana. D: Pigeon, Columba livia. A: alln, anterior lateral line nerve; c, cerebellum; oln, olfactory nerve; ote, optic tectum; plln, posterior lateral line nerve; te, telencephalon; V–VII, cranial nerve V through VII; VIII, cranial nerve VIII; IX, cranial nerve IX. C: c, cerebellum; ob, olfactory bulb; on, olfactory nerve; ot, optic tectum; tel, telencephalon.

From Smeets, 1992 [146]. From Kicliter and Northcutt, 1992 [121]. From Ulinski, 1983 [156]
Figure 2. Figure 2.

A: Early stages of vertebrate brain development. To the left are dorsal views of successively later developmental stages from a tiger salamander, Amblystoma tigrinum. The earliest stage (stage 14) shows an embryo in which the nervous system is represented by a neural plate. Stages 15, 18, and 20 show the nervous system when the neural plate is partially formed into a neural tube. Stage 22 shows a stage at which the neural tube is formed and is situated deep to the epidermis. B: Lateral view of the nervous system from a relatively older chick (Gallus domesticus). To the right are diagrams of transverse sections through the same stage. Notice in particular that the neural tube is situated dorsal to the notochord, which is the precursor of the vertebral column. The brain comprises the spinal cord and several brain vesicles (t, telencephalon; d, diencephalon, m, mesencephalon, r, rhombencephalon). The rhombencephalon is subdivided into eight rhombomeres (r1, etc.). Roman numbers denote cranial nerves. Branchial arches are denoted as b1, etc.

From Källen, 1965 [83]. From Wilkinson and Krumlauf, 1990 [169]
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Nuclei and cortex. Transverse section through the forebrain of a water snake, Thamnophis sirtalis. The section has been stained with cresyl violet to show the distribution of nerve cell bodies. Some neuronal somata are distributed within nuclear groups, such as the anterior dorsal ventricular ridge (ADVR), the striatum (STR), and the septum (S). Other cells are distributed in the cortex, a layer sheet of cells situated above the ventricle of the forebrain. The cortex contains four cytoarchitectonic areas labeled M, DM, D, and L. The lateral forebrain bundle (LFB) and accessory optic tract (AOT) are fiber pathways.
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Neural crest. Lateral view of the head and rostral trunk of a chick, Gallus domesticus, embryo with the neural crest labeled. Neural crest material contributed to segmentally arranged aggregations of cells in the postcranial region of the embryo and to some regions of the head.

From Noden, 1991 [118]
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Spinal cord segments. A: Internal organization of a spinal cord segment as seen in a Golgi preparation from the spinal cord of a frog, Rana esculenta. Central processes of dorsal root ganglion cells enter the cord via the dorsal root. Examples of these are shown at the left. Examples of neurons in the ventral horn are shown at the right. B: Cells in the gray matter of a spinal cord segment are shown in a drawing of the spinal cord of a rhesus monkey, Macaca mulatta. Smaller neurons are situated dorsally in the cord, while large motor neurons are seen in the ventral horn.

From Szekely, 1989 [153]. From Petras, 1976 [130]
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Spinal cords from several different vertebrates are shown in dorsal view to illustrate the range of morphology seen within vertebrates. A: Turtle. B: Human. C: Seal. D: Frog.

From Nieuwenhuys, 1964 [116]
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Brain vesicles are shown in lateral views of the brains of human embryos. A, B: Twenty‐six‐ and 28‐day stages showing three vesicles: prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon. Rhombencephalon is divided into seven rhombomeres, which are demarcated on the 26‐day stage. C: Thirty‐five‐day stage in which the prosencephalon has divided into a rostral telencephalon and a more caudal diencephalon and the rhombencephalon is divided into a myelencephalon and metencephalon. D: Fifty‐day stage in which the same five brain vesicles are present, but the brain is more folded and resembles its adult configuration.

From Larsen, 1993 [94]
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Ventricular sulci. A: Configuration of the rhombencephalon of a tiger salamander, Amblystoma tigrinum. The thin membrane (the tela) that covers the rhombencephalon has been removed in this transverse section through the rhombencephalon. Sulci on the ventricular surface divide the rhombencephalon into an alar plate (labeled sensory zone here) and a basal plate (labeled motor zone here). The dorsal part of the alar plate contains nuclei associated with the lateral line system, the auditory system, and the vestibular system (acousticolateral area). Examples of neurons from the alar plate are shown as they appear in Golgi preparations to the right. B: Ventricular sulci throughout the spinal cord and brain are shown on this reconstruction of the brain of a chick embryo, Gallus domesticus. Reconstruction shows the medial surface of the right half of the brain and rostral spinal cord. The pattern of sulci present in spinal cord and rhombencephalon continues into the mesencephalon but is replaced by distinctive sulcal patterns in the diencephalon and telencephalon.

From Herrick, 1948 [63]. From Källen, 1965 [83]
Figure 9. Figure 9.

Diencephalic sulci. Transverse section through the diencephalon of a tiger salamander, Amblystoma tigrinum. (The section also passes through the caudal poles of the cerebral hemispheres, which appear at the top of the illustration.) The left of the drawing shows nerve cell bodies, which appear as open profiles arranged along the ventricular surface, and axons, which are situated more laterally. The right of the drawing shows diencephalic nuclei as they appear in Golgi preparations.

From Herrick, 1948 [63]
Figure 10. Figure 10.

Major components of the telencephalon are shown in the brain of a hypothetical vertebrate. Insets show lateral and dorsal views of brain with olfactory bulb (OB), cerebral hemisphere (CH), optic tectum (OTe), and cerebellum (Cb) marked. Sections through the telencephalon at levels A, B, and C are shown. The section in A shows the three compartments of the telencephalon: the pallium (PAL), striatum (STR), and septum (S). The lateral ventricle (LV) is the ventricular space in the telencephalon of vertebrates with evaginated telencephalons (see text).

From Ulinski, 1990 [159]
Figure 11. Figure 11.

The telencephalon develops in one of two different ways in different groups of vertebrates. The top drawing shows a transverse section of the rostral neural tube; this stage is common to all vertebrates. The pattern of telencephalic development (known as eversion) seen in actinopterygian fishes is shown to the right. The roof of the neural tube is reduced to a thin tela, while the walls of the tube thicken and fold over. The pattern seen in other vertebrates is shown to the left. The lateral walls of the neural tube balloon out to form hemispheres that contain lateral ventricles.

From Nieuwenhuys and Meek, 1990 [117]
Figure 12. Figure 12.

Sequential increase in pallial components. This figure summarizes one common view of forebrain evolution in which components are added to the cortex (or pallium) in sequence. A: A primitive stage in which the cerebral hemisphere consists of an olfactory bulb and an olfactory cortex or paleopallium. B–D: Stages in which two additional components (archipallium and neopallium) are added. E and F: Stages in which there is an expansion of the neocortex.

From Romer, 1962 [136]
Figure 13. Figure 13.

The relationship between forebrain weight and body weight is plotted for several taxonomic groups of vertebrates. Logarithm of forebrain weight is plotted as a function of the logarithm of body weight. Data points from different groups of vertebrates fall into clusters, which are surrounded by minimum convex polygons. Groups such as mammals and birds have larger forebrains per unit body weight than do groups such as bony fishes and agnathans.

From Northcutt, 1981 [119]
Figure 14. Figure 14.

Sensory and motor areas of the cerebral cortex are depicted for rat, cat, and monkey. These maps were determined using relatively large electrodes to record the activity of groups of neurons. Data for each animal are shown in a lateral view of the left cerebral hemisphere. Part of the medial surface of the left hemisphere is shown folded upward. Visual areas (VISI, VISII) are located on the occipital poles of the hemispheres. Auditory areas (AUDI, AUDII) are located on the temporal poles. Somatosensory areas (SI, SII) are located more rostrally in the cortex; they are situated posterior to the motor areas (MI, MII). Both somatosensory and motor areas have a somatotropic organization, which is represented by figures of the animals' body surface.

From Woolsey, 1958 [170]
Figure 15. Figure 15.

Cytoarchitectonic areas of the human cortex are depicted by different symbols on the lateral (A) and medial (B) surfaces of a human cerebral hemisphere. These areas are defined on the basis of the size and density of neurons in different regions of the cerebral cortex.

From Brodmann, 1909 [10]
Figure 16. Figure 16.

Fine‐grained cortical map. Detailed maps of cortical areas based upon multiple electrode penetrations reveal that each cytoarchitectonic area has distinct physiological properties. This figure shows a map of Brodmann's areas 3b and 1 in a macaque. The drawing to the right shows the distribution of electrode penetrations. The drawing to the left shows the distribution of different body parts (including digits: D1, etc.) in the two areas. Each cytoarchitectonic area contains a complete map of the somatosensory surface. The two maps have a mirror‐image relationship.

From Kaas et al., 1981 [82]
Figure 17. Figure 17.

This figure shows an example of sequences of neurons arranged into discrete pathways. It is based on drawings of Golgi preparations from the brain of a mouse. It depicts a parasagittal section of the brain, with the rostral end oriented to the left. Somatosensory information from the spinal cord reaches the brain via axons labeled H. These axons form synapses upon neurons in the dorsal thalamus (B). Thalamic neurons have axons (b) that carry information to the somatosensory cortex (T). Cortical neurons project back to the thalamus via axons labeled a. Arrows depict the direction of information flow.

From Ramon y Cajal, 1955 [135]
Figure 18. Figure 18.

Fish vagal lobes. Taste receptors in the mouth and on the body of goldfish are represented in the facial lobe (FL) and vagal lobe (VL) of the medulla. A: Dorsal view of the brain of a goldfish showing the routes followed by olfactory, taste, and lateral line information into the brain. Taste buds lining the mouth and pharynx project topographically to the vagal lobe. Taste buds covering the body surface project topographically to the facial lobe. B: Representation of the fish's body surface upon the facial lobe in the case of a catfish. Cb, cerebellum; Ext Gust, external gustatory inputs; FL, facial lobe; I.L., intermediate lobe; Int Gust, internal gustatory inputs; M.L., medial lobe; NF, facial nerve; NLLa, anterior lateral line nerve; N X‐LLp, vagus and posterior lateral line nerves; LL, lateral line inputs; L.L., lateral lobe: Olf, olfactory inputs; Olf Bulb, olfactory bulb; Olf tr, olfactory tract; PLL, posterior lateral line lobe; Tel, telencephalon; TeO, optic tectum; VL, vagal lobe; Vis, visceral inputs.

From Finger, 1983 [33]. From Finger, 1976 [32]
Figure 19. Figure 19.

Weakly electric fish have topographic representations of their body surfaces in the lateral line lobes. Body surface is covered by electroreceptors sensitive to electrical currents in the water. Several types of receptor are present, each of which carries a different form of information. The figure at the top shows the body surface of the fish with the brain shown above the eye in phantom view. The lower part of the figure shows the lateral line lobe, which consists of medial, dorsolateral, and ventrolateral zones (MZ, DLZ, VLZ). Each segment contains a topographic representation of the body, embodying information from a different type of electroreceptor.

From Bell and Russel, 1978 [6]
Figure 20. Figure 20.

Detailed maps of somatosensory areas in the cerebellar cortex reveal that the body map is fractured or broken into many small pieces. F: Dorsolateral view of the cerebellum of a rat with the positions of electrode punctures indicated by dots. E: The face and mouth of a rat with specific body parts coded by letters. A–D: Individual folia of the cerebellar cortex with the maps of body parts indicated. Notice that each body part is represented many times throughout the cortex and the map does not preserve nearest‐neighbor relationships.

From Shambes et al. 1978 [143]
Figure 21. Figure 21.

Infrared maps in snakes. Pit vipers, such as rattlesnakes and certain species of boid snake, have infrared receptors distributed along their jaws. A and B: Heads of a boid snake, Python reticulatus (A), and a pit viper, Crotalus sp. (B), with the pits (p) and the branches of the trigeminal nerve that serve them illustrated. Brains are also shown in phantom views. C and D: Maps of space as sampled by infrared receptors of the pits on the surface of the optic tectum for the two snakes. Vertical and horizontal orientation lines are mapped onto the tectal surface as a result of microelectrode recording experiments. C. cerebellum; go, ganglion of the ophthalmic branch; gs, ganglion of the maxillary and mandibular branches; mam, mental branch; mdc, mandibular pits; mdm, mental pits; M, midbrain; md, mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve; mx, maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve; mxd, deep maxillary branch; mxs, superficial maxillary branch; MY, myelencephalon; n, nasal aperture; o, opthalmic branch; T, telencephalon.

From Molenaar, 1992 (111]
Figure 22. Figure 22.

Visual structures in the brain contain maps of the retinal surface, illustrated here in the frog. Inset (above) shows the eye of a frog with dorsal, ventral, temporal, and nasal quadrants indicated. Parts A–D show a view of the left lateral surface of the frog brain with the cerebral hemisphere to the left and the optic nerves cut. Several brain stem structures receive visual information, and each has a topographic representation of the retinal surface indicated by different types of shading. B, neuropile of Bellonci; C, geniculate; D, dorsal retinal surface; N, nasal retinal surface; P, pretectal nucleus; T, temporal retinal surface; Tymp, tympanum; U, uncinate pretectal nucleus; V, ventral retinal surface; X, accessory optic nuclei.

From Fite and Scalia, 1976 [36]
Figure 23. Figure 23.

Maps of sensory surfaces in adult structures are plastic in the sense that the map is modified by changes in the periphery. A: Position of the hand in somatosensory is 3b in owl monkey. B and C: Details of the representation of the hand and fingers in a normal monkey. D: How the hand region is altered by removal of the third digit.

From Merzenich et al., 1978 (108]. From Kaas, 1991 [80]
Figure 24. Figure 24.

Michrochiropteran bats that rely upon echolocation to capture insects have large auditory areas. A: Map of a brain from a rostrolateral perspective. Positions of auditory areas (a,b,c) are marked by a prominent blood vessel. B: Enlargement of the blood vessel and auditory areas. The central area is organized around particular frequencies, with frequencies around 61 kHz having a large representation. Other areas are not tonotopically organized but respond to more complex parameters.

From Suga, 1982 [151]
Figure 25. Figure 25.

Space maps in owl nucleus mesencephalicus lateralis dorsalis. The auditory midbrain (MLD) of owls contains a constructed map of auditory space. The left part of the figure shows an owl situated in auditory space with different vertical and horizontal orientation lines indicated. Loci in auditory space are indicated by numbered rectangles. Transverse, horizontal, and sagittal sections through the midbrain of the owl pass through the auditory component, MLD. The meridians of auditory space are mapped in an orderly fashion in MLD.

From Konishi and Knudsen, 1982 [92]
Figure 26. Figure 26.

Organization of the optic tectum is illustrated in the case of a garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis. Layers of the tectum are indicated by abbreviations to the left. Examples of principal types of neuron found in the tectum are shown from Golgi preparations. A spatially restricted arbor of a retinal ganglion cell axon carries visual information to the superficial layers of the tectum. It synapses upon the dendritic arbors of neurons in the tectal layer SFGSc. These neurons in turn synapse upon tectoreticular neurons with their cell bodies in layer SGC. Since these neurons have wide dendritic arbors, they will receive inputs from many retinal ganglion cells and code information about relatively large regions of visual space. TBc, crossed tectobulbar neuron; TRo; tectorotundal neuron; SFGSa,b,c, sublayers a, b, and c of the stratum fibrosum griseum superficiale; SGC, stratum griseum centrale; SO, stratum opticum; SZ, stratum zonale.

From Dacey and Ulinski, 1986 [20]
Figure 27. Figure 27.

The forebrain is linked to the optic tectum via the substantia nigra and other brain stem structures. These relationships are illustrated in the case of a caiman, Caiman sklerops. Inset shows a caiman brain in dorsal view. A and B: Sequence of projections from the forebrain to the optic tectum projected onto a parasagittal section of the brain. A: Projections from the dorsal ventricular ridge (DVR) in the telencephalon to the striatum (STR) and from the striatum to brain stem structures that include the substantia nigra (TPC). The substantia nigra and a pretectal nucleus (DPC) project to the optic tectum. Other brain stem structures project to the striatum. Other abbreviations: AEN, anterior entopeduncular nucleus; CB, cerebellum; OC, optic chiasm; OT, optic tectum; PEN, posterior entopeduncular nucleus.

From Ulinski, 1983 [156]
Figure 28. Figure 28.

Examples of neurons from the striatum in the case of an alligator, Alligator mississippiensis. A: Medium‐sized spiny neuron from the striatum. Inset shows a transverse section through the forebrain of an alligator. Anterior dorsal ventricular ridge (ADVR), striatum (STR), and septum (S) are indicated. Dot shows the position of the neuron within the striatum. The main part of the illustration is the soma and dendrites of the neuron. B: Large aspiny neuron.

From Ulinski, 1990 [157]
Figure 29. Figure 29.

Major regions of the pallium are indicated for a tegu lizard, Tupinambus nigropunctatus (A), and an opossum, Didelphis virginiana (B). In both cases, the pallium contains a medially placed limbic segment (Lim), intermediate segment (Int), and a lateral or olfactory segment (Olf).. Other abbreviations: ADVR, anterior dorsal ventricular ridge; DB, diagonal band; HF, hippocampal fissure; MFB, medial forebrain bundle; IC, internal capsule; LFB, lateral forebrain bundle; OTu, olfactory tubercle; S, septum; RF, rhinal fissure; STR, striatum.

From Ulinski, 1990 [158]


Figure 1.

Examples of brains from several different vertebrates are shown to illustrate general morphology. Brains are shown at approximately the same apparent size but at very different scales. A: Brain of a bowfin, Amia calva. B: Dogfish shark, Squalus acanthias. C: Bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana. D: Pigeon, Columba livia. A: alln, anterior lateral line nerve; c, cerebellum; oln, olfactory nerve; ote, optic tectum; plln, posterior lateral line nerve; te, telencephalon; V–VII, cranial nerve V through VII; VIII, cranial nerve VIII; IX, cranial nerve IX. C: c, cerebellum; ob, olfactory bulb; on, olfactory nerve; ot, optic tectum; tel, telencephalon.

From Smeets, 1992 [146]. From Kicliter and Northcutt, 1992 [121]. From Ulinski, 1983 [156]


Figure 2.

A: Early stages of vertebrate brain development. To the left are dorsal views of successively later developmental stages from a tiger salamander, Amblystoma tigrinum. The earliest stage (stage 14) shows an embryo in which the nervous system is represented by a neural plate. Stages 15, 18, and 20 show the nervous system when the neural plate is partially formed into a neural tube. Stage 22 shows a stage at which the neural tube is formed and is situated deep to the epidermis. B: Lateral view of the nervous system from a relatively older chick (Gallus domesticus). To the right are diagrams of transverse sections through the same stage. Notice in particular that the neural tube is situated dorsal to the notochord, which is the precursor of the vertebral column. The brain comprises the spinal cord and several brain vesicles (t, telencephalon; d, diencephalon, m, mesencephalon, r, rhombencephalon). The rhombencephalon is subdivided into eight rhombomeres (r1, etc.). Roman numbers denote cranial nerves. Branchial arches are denoted as b1, etc.

From Källen, 1965 [83]. From Wilkinson and Krumlauf, 1990 [169]


Figure 3.

Nuclei and cortex. Transverse section through the forebrain of a water snake, Thamnophis sirtalis. The section has been stained with cresyl violet to show the distribution of nerve cell bodies. Some neuronal somata are distributed within nuclear groups, such as the anterior dorsal ventricular ridge (ADVR), the striatum (STR), and the septum (S). Other cells are distributed in the cortex, a layer sheet of cells situated above the ventricle of the forebrain. The cortex contains four cytoarchitectonic areas labeled M, DM, D, and L. The lateral forebrain bundle (LFB) and accessory optic tract (AOT) are fiber pathways.



Figure 4.

Neural crest. Lateral view of the head and rostral trunk of a chick, Gallus domesticus, embryo with the neural crest labeled. Neural crest material contributed to segmentally arranged aggregations of cells in the postcranial region of the embryo and to some regions of the head.

From Noden, 1991 [118]


Figure 5.

Spinal cord segments. A: Internal organization of a spinal cord segment as seen in a Golgi preparation from the spinal cord of a frog, Rana esculenta. Central processes of dorsal root ganglion cells enter the cord via the dorsal root. Examples of these are shown at the left. Examples of neurons in the ventral horn are shown at the right. B: Cells in the gray matter of a spinal cord segment are shown in a drawing of the spinal cord of a rhesus monkey, Macaca mulatta. Smaller neurons are situated dorsally in the cord, while large motor neurons are seen in the ventral horn.

From Szekely, 1989 [153]. From Petras, 1976 [130]


Figure 6.

Spinal cords from several different vertebrates are shown in dorsal view to illustrate the range of morphology seen within vertebrates. A: Turtle. B: Human. C: Seal. D: Frog.

From Nieuwenhuys, 1964 [116]


Figure 7.

Brain vesicles are shown in lateral views of the brains of human embryos. A, B: Twenty‐six‐ and 28‐day stages showing three vesicles: prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon. Rhombencephalon is divided into seven rhombomeres, which are demarcated on the 26‐day stage. C: Thirty‐five‐day stage in which the prosencephalon has divided into a rostral telencephalon and a more caudal diencephalon and the rhombencephalon is divided into a myelencephalon and metencephalon. D: Fifty‐day stage in which the same five brain vesicles are present, but the brain is more folded and resembles its adult configuration.

From Larsen, 1993 [94]


Figure 8.

Ventricular sulci. A: Configuration of the rhombencephalon of a tiger salamander, Amblystoma tigrinum. The thin membrane (the tela) that covers the rhombencephalon has been removed in this transverse section through the rhombencephalon. Sulci on the ventricular surface divide the rhombencephalon into an alar plate (labeled sensory zone here) and a basal plate (labeled motor zone here). The dorsal part of the alar plate contains nuclei associated with the lateral line system, the auditory system, and the vestibular system (acousticolateral area). Examples of neurons from the alar plate are shown as they appear in Golgi preparations to the right. B: Ventricular sulci throughout the spinal cord and brain are shown on this reconstruction of the brain of a chick embryo, Gallus domesticus. Reconstruction shows the medial surface of the right half of the brain and rostral spinal cord. The pattern of sulci present in spinal cord and rhombencephalon continues into the mesencephalon but is replaced by distinctive sulcal patterns in the diencephalon and telencephalon.

From Herrick, 1948 [63]. From Källen, 1965 [83]


Figure 9.

Diencephalic sulci. Transverse section through the diencephalon of a tiger salamander, Amblystoma tigrinum. (The section also passes through the caudal poles of the cerebral hemispheres, which appear at the top of the illustration.) The left of the drawing shows nerve cell bodies, which appear as open profiles arranged along the ventricular surface, and axons, which are situated more laterally. The right of the drawing shows diencephalic nuclei as they appear in Golgi preparations.

From Herrick, 1948 [63]


Figure 10.

Major components of the telencephalon are shown in the brain of a hypothetical vertebrate. Insets show lateral and dorsal views of brain with olfactory bulb (OB), cerebral hemisphere (CH), optic tectum (OTe), and cerebellum (Cb) marked. Sections through the telencephalon at levels A, B, and C are shown. The section in A shows the three compartments of the telencephalon: the pallium (PAL), striatum (STR), and septum (S). The lateral ventricle (LV) is the ventricular space in the telencephalon of vertebrates with evaginated telencephalons (see text).

From Ulinski, 1990 [159]


Figure 11.

The telencephalon develops in one of two different ways in different groups of vertebrates. The top drawing shows a transverse section of the rostral neural tube; this stage is common to all vertebrates. The pattern of telencephalic development (known as eversion) seen in actinopterygian fishes is shown to the right. The roof of the neural tube is reduced to a thin tela, while the walls of the tube thicken and fold over. The pattern seen in other vertebrates is shown to the left. The lateral walls of the neural tube balloon out to form hemispheres that contain lateral ventricles.

From Nieuwenhuys and Meek, 1990 [117]


Figure 12.

Sequential increase in pallial components. This figure summarizes one common view of forebrain evolution in which components are added to the cortex (or pallium) in sequence. A: A primitive stage in which the cerebral hemisphere consists of an olfactory bulb and an olfactory cortex or paleopallium. B–D: Stages in which two additional components (archipallium and neopallium) are added. E and F: Stages in which there is an expansion of the neocortex.

From Romer, 1962 [136]


Figure 13.

The relationship between forebrain weight and body weight is plotted for several taxonomic groups of vertebrates. Logarithm of forebrain weight is plotted as a function of the logarithm of body weight. Data points from different groups of vertebrates fall into clusters, which are surrounded by minimum convex polygons. Groups such as mammals and birds have larger forebrains per unit body weight than do groups such as bony fishes and agnathans.

From Northcutt, 1981 [119]


Figure 14.

Sensory and motor areas of the cerebral cortex are depicted for rat, cat, and monkey. These maps were determined using relatively large electrodes to record the activity of groups of neurons. Data for each animal are shown in a lateral view of the left cerebral hemisphere. Part of the medial surface of the left hemisphere is shown folded upward. Visual areas (VISI, VISII) are located on the occipital poles of the hemispheres. Auditory areas (AUDI, AUDII) are located on the temporal poles. Somatosensory areas (SI, SII) are located more rostrally in the cortex; they are situated posterior to the motor areas (MI, MII). Both somatosensory and motor areas have a somatotropic organization, which is represented by figures of the animals' body surface.

From Woolsey, 1958 [170]


Figure 15.

Cytoarchitectonic areas of the human cortex are depicted by different symbols on the lateral (A) and medial (B) surfaces of a human cerebral hemisphere. These areas are defined on the basis of the size and density of neurons in different regions of the cerebral cortex.

From Brodmann, 1909 [10]


Figure 16.

Fine‐grained cortical map. Detailed maps of cortical areas based upon multiple electrode penetrations reveal that each cytoarchitectonic area has distinct physiological properties. This figure shows a map of Brodmann's areas 3b and 1 in a macaque. The drawing to the right shows the distribution of electrode penetrations. The drawing to the left shows the distribution of different body parts (including digits: D1, etc.) in the two areas. Each cytoarchitectonic area contains a complete map of the somatosensory surface. The two maps have a mirror‐image relationship.

From Kaas et al., 1981 [82]


Figure 17.

This figure shows an example of sequences of neurons arranged into discrete pathways. It is based on drawings of Golgi preparations from the brain of a mouse. It depicts a parasagittal section of the brain, with the rostral end oriented to the left. Somatosensory information from the spinal cord reaches the brain via axons labeled H. These axons form synapses upon neurons in the dorsal thalamus (B). Thalamic neurons have axons (b) that carry information to the somatosensory cortex (T). Cortical neurons project back to the thalamus via axons labeled a. Arrows depict the direction of information flow.

From Ramon y Cajal, 1955 [135]


Figure 18.

Fish vagal lobes. Taste receptors in the mouth and on the body of goldfish are represented in the facial lobe (FL) and vagal lobe (VL) of the medulla. A: Dorsal view of the brain of a goldfish showing the routes followed by olfactory, taste, and lateral line information into the brain. Taste buds lining the mouth and pharynx project topographically to the vagal lobe. Taste buds covering the body surface project topographically to the facial lobe. B: Representation of the fish's body surface upon the facial lobe in the case of a catfish. Cb, cerebellum; Ext Gust, external gustatory inputs; FL, facial lobe; I.L., intermediate lobe; Int Gust, internal gustatory inputs; M.L., medial lobe; NF, facial nerve; NLLa, anterior lateral line nerve; N X‐LLp, vagus and posterior lateral line nerves; LL, lateral line inputs; L.L., lateral lobe: Olf, olfactory inputs; Olf Bulb, olfactory bulb; Olf tr, olfactory tract; PLL, posterior lateral line lobe; Tel, telencephalon; TeO, optic tectum; VL, vagal lobe; Vis, visceral inputs.

From Finger, 1983 [33]. From Finger, 1976 [32]


Figure 19.

Weakly electric fish have topographic representations of their body surfaces in the lateral line lobes. Body surface is covered by electroreceptors sensitive to electrical currents in the water. Several types of receptor are present, each of which carries a different form of information. The figure at the top shows the body surface of the fish with the brain shown above the eye in phantom view. The lower part of the figure shows the lateral line lobe, which consists of medial, dorsolateral, and ventrolateral zones (MZ, DLZ, VLZ). Each segment contains a topographic representation of the body, embodying information from a different type of electroreceptor.

From Bell and Russel, 1978 [6]


Figure 20.

Detailed maps of somatosensory areas in the cerebellar cortex reveal that the body map is fractured or broken into many small pieces. F: Dorsolateral view of the cerebellum of a rat with the positions of electrode punctures indicated by dots. E: The face and mouth of a rat with specific body parts coded by letters. A–D: Individual folia of the cerebellar cortex with the maps of body parts indicated. Notice that each body part is represented many times throughout the cortex and the map does not preserve nearest‐neighbor relationships.

From Shambes et al. 1978 [143]


Figure 21.

Infrared maps in snakes. Pit vipers, such as rattlesnakes and certain species of boid snake, have infrared receptors distributed along their jaws. A and B: Heads of a boid snake, Python reticulatus (A), and a pit viper, Crotalus sp. (B), with the pits (p) and the branches of the trigeminal nerve that serve them illustrated. Brains are also shown in phantom views. C and D: Maps of space as sampled by infrared receptors of the pits on the surface of the optic tectum for the two snakes. Vertical and horizontal orientation lines are mapped onto the tectal surface as a result of microelectrode recording experiments. C. cerebellum; go, ganglion of the ophthalmic branch; gs, ganglion of the maxillary and mandibular branches; mam, mental branch; mdc, mandibular pits; mdm, mental pits; M, midbrain; md, mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve; mx, maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve; mxd, deep maxillary branch; mxs, superficial maxillary branch; MY, myelencephalon; n, nasal aperture; o, opthalmic branch; T, telencephalon.

From Molenaar, 1992 (111]


Figure 22.

Visual structures in the brain contain maps of the retinal surface, illustrated here in the frog. Inset (above) shows the eye of a frog with dorsal, ventral, temporal, and nasal quadrants indicated. Parts A–D show a view of the left lateral surface of the frog brain with the cerebral hemisphere to the left and the optic nerves cut. Several brain stem structures receive visual information, and each has a topographic representation of the retinal surface indicated by different types of shading. B, neuropile of Bellonci; C, geniculate; D, dorsal retinal surface; N, nasal retinal surface; P, pretectal nucleus; T, temporal retinal surface; Tymp, tympanum; U, uncinate pretectal nucleus; V, ventral retinal surface; X, accessory optic nuclei.

From Fite and Scalia, 1976 [36]


Figure 23.

Maps of sensory surfaces in adult structures are plastic in the sense that the map is modified by changes in the periphery. A: Position of the hand in somatosensory is 3b in owl monkey. B and C: Details of the representation of the hand and fingers in a normal monkey. D: How the hand region is altered by removal of the third digit.

From Merzenich et al., 1978 (108]. From Kaas, 1991 [80]


Figure 24.

Michrochiropteran bats that rely upon echolocation to capture insects have large auditory areas. A: Map of a brain from a rostrolateral perspective. Positions of auditory areas (a,b,c) are marked by a prominent blood vessel. B: Enlargement of the blood vessel and auditory areas. The central area is organized around particular frequencies, with frequencies around 61 kHz having a large representation. Other areas are not tonotopically organized but respond to more complex parameters.

From Suga, 1982 [151]


Figure 25.

Space maps in owl nucleus mesencephalicus lateralis dorsalis. The auditory midbrain (MLD) of owls contains a constructed map of auditory space. The left part of the figure shows an owl situated in auditory space with different vertical and horizontal orientation lines indicated. Loci in auditory space are indicated by numbered rectangles. Transverse, horizontal, and sagittal sections through the midbrain of the owl pass through the auditory component, MLD. The meridians of auditory space are mapped in an orderly fashion in MLD.

From Konishi and Knudsen, 1982 [92]


Figure 26.

Organization of the optic tectum is illustrated in the case of a garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis. Layers of the tectum are indicated by abbreviations to the left. Examples of principal types of neuron found in the tectum are shown from Golgi preparations. A spatially restricted arbor of a retinal ganglion cell axon carries visual information to the superficial layers of the tectum. It synapses upon the dendritic arbors of neurons in the tectal layer SFGSc. These neurons in turn synapse upon tectoreticular neurons with their cell bodies in layer SGC. Since these neurons have wide dendritic arbors, they will receive inputs from many retinal ganglion cells and code information about relatively large regions of visual space. TBc, crossed tectobulbar neuron; TRo; tectorotundal neuron; SFGSa,b,c, sublayers a, b, and c of the stratum fibrosum griseum superficiale; SGC, stratum griseum centrale; SO, stratum opticum; SZ, stratum zonale.

From Dacey and Ulinski, 1986 [20]


Figure 27.

The forebrain is linked to the optic tectum via the substantia nigra and other brain stem structures. These relationships are illustrated in the case of a caiman, Caiman sklerops. Inset shows a caiman brain in dorsal view. A and B: Sequence of projections from the forebrain to the optic tectum projected onto a parasagittal section of the brain. A: Projections from the dorsal ventricular ridge (DVR) in the telencephalon to the striatum (STR) and from the striatum to brain stem structures that include the substantia nigra (TPC). The substantia nigra and a pretectal nucleus (DPC) project to the optic tectum. Other brain stem structures project to the striatum. Other abbreviations: AEN, anterior entopeduncular nucleus; CB, cerebellum; OC, optic chiasm; OT, optic tectum; PEN, posterior entopeduncular nucleus.

From Ulinski, 1983 [156]


Figure 28.

Examples of neurons from the striatum in the case of an alligator, Alligator mississippiensis. A: Medium‐sized spiny neuron from the striatum. Inset shows a transverse section through the forebrain of an alligator. Anterior dorsal ventricular ridge (ADVR), striatum (STR), and septum (S) are indicated. Dot shows the position of the neuron within the striatum. The main part of the illustration is the soma and dendrites of the neuron. B: Large aspiny neuron.

From Ulinski, 1990 [157]


Figure 29.

Major regions of the pallium are indicated for a tegu lizard, Tupinambus nigropunctatus (A), and an opossum, Didelphis virginiana (B). In both cases, the pallium contains a medially placed limbic segment (Lim), intermediate segment (Int), and a lateral or olfactory segment (Olf).. Other abbreviations: ADVR, anterior dorsal ventricular ridge; DB, diagonal band; HF, hippocampal fissure; MFB, medial forebrain bundle; IC, internal capsule; LFB, lateral forebrain bundle; OTu, olfactory tubercle; S, septum; RF, rhinal fissure; STR, striatum.

From Ulinski, 1990 [158]
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Article Title: Vertebrate Nervous System
 

How to Cite

Philip S. Ulinski. Vertebrate Nervous System. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 30: Handbook of Physiology, Comparative Physiology: 17-53. First published in print 1997. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp130102