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Role of Short Chain Fatty Acid Receptors in Intestinal Physiology and Pathophysiology

Medha Priyadarshini, Kumar U. Kotlo, Pradeep K. Dudeja, Brian T. Layden

10.1002/cphy.c170050

Source: Volume 8, Issue 3, July 2018

Published online: June 2018

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



ABSTRACT

Nutrient sensing is a mechanism for organisms to sense their environment. In larger animals, including humans, the intestinal tract is a major site of nutrient sensing for the body, not surprisingly, as this is the central location where nutrients are absorbed. In the gut, bacterial fermentation results in generation of short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), a class of nutrients, which are sensed by specific membrane bound receptors, FFA2, FFA3, GPR109a, and Olfr78. These receptors are expressed uniquely throughout the gut and signal through distinct mechanisms. To date, the emerging data suggests a role of these receptors in normal and pathological conditions. The overall function of these receptors is to regulate aspects of intestinal motility, hormone secretion, maintenance of the epithelial barrier, and immune cell function. Besides in intestinal health, a prominent role of these receptors has emerged in modulation of inflammatory and immune responses during pathological conditions. Moreover, these receptors are being revealed to interact with the gut microbiota. This review article updates the current body of knowledge on SCFA sensing receptors in the gut and their roles in intestinal health and disease as well as in whole body energy homeostasis. © 2017 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 8:1091‐1115, 2018.

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Figure 1. Figure 1. Different G‐protein signaling pathways. Ligand (agonist) occupation of the binding pocket in the GPCR leads to conformational changes in the receptor and an altered interaction with heterotrimeric G‐proteins. The activated receptor acts as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor that catalyzes the exchange of GDP for GTP on the Gα subunit and induced dissociation of active Gα subunit and Gβγ dimer (activated subunits represented with orange shade). There are four main Gα subunit protein classes, Gαq, Gαs, Gαi, Gα12/13. Each GPCR can couple with one or more Gα subunits. The activated Gα subunits can bind to and regulate the activity of several downstream effector molecules generating a cascade of signaling responses that culminate into specific cellular responses. Gαq/11 family members bind to and activate phospholipase C (PLC) which hydrolyses phosphotidylinositol 4,5‐bisphosphate (PIP2) to diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IP3) which can mobilize calcium from intracellular stores or activate downstream protein kinases and modulate cell response. Gαs subunit activates adenylyl cyclase (AC) which increases intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels leading to activation of protein kinase A (PKA). Gαi subunit inhibits AC and reduces intracellular cAMP concentration. Gα12/13 can activate Rho kinases. The Gβγ subunit can activate phosphoinositide 3 kinase γ (PI3Kγ), protein kinases (PKD), and phospholipases (PLC). Various short chain fatty acid receptors (highlighted in blue color) are listed based on their G‐protein‐coupling preference. FFA2/3, free fatty acid receptor 2/3; Olfr78, olfactory receptor 78; GPR109a, G‐protein‐coupled receptor 109a (32,135,145,147,152).
Figure 2. Figure 2. Regulation of GPCR signaling. Binding of agonist to the GPCR initiates a series of events: exchange of GDP for GTP on Gα subunit, dissociation of activated GTP‐Gα and Gβγ dimer, stimulation of downstream effectors (depicted in Fig. 1). To prevent overstimulation and assure receptor resensitization, GPCR signaling is regulated by multiple mechanisms (few are enumerated here; see Further Reading list for detailed description). (A) Regulator of G‐protein signaling (RGS) proteins function as GTPase‐activating proteins, enhance the intrinsic GTP hydrolysis activity of the Gα subunit resulting in generation of inactive GDP‐Gα, and promoting the reassembly G‐protein heterotrimer and its reassociation with the receptor. (B) GPCR kinases (GRK) phosphorylate specific residues on the intracellular domain of agonist‐occupied receptor. Phosphorylated receptor recruits β arrestin that sterically hinders interaction of the receptor with G‐protein, thus uncoupling the G‐protein complex from the GPCR (termed as desensitization). (C) Binding to the phosphorylated GPCR activates arrestin enabling it to perform ligand regulated scaffolding functions. Activated β arrestin interacts with the endocytic machinery (clathrin and adaptor proteins) and initiates receptor internalization. (D‐F) Internalized GPCR in GPCR‐β arrestin endosome can have multiple fates. GPCR‐β arrestin complex can (D) direct the assembly of signalosome by allowing coupling of mitogen‐activated protein kinases propagating further signaling pathways, (E) be targeted for lysosomal degradation, or (F) GPCRs can be trafficked to recycling endosomes and recycled back to the plasma membrane for resensitization. (G) Ligand type can also determine course of GPCR signaling where biased agonists can specifically activate either G‐protein or β arrestin‐mediated signaling pathway. (H) Gene transcription can also affect the total membrane levels of the GPCR. Transcription can be regulated by various inflammatory mediators, which can activate transcription factors that bind directly like XBP‐1 on FFA2 promoter or indirectly affect chromatin accessibility by altering acetylation/methylation of the promoter (IFNγ for GPR109a). (I) GPCRs can form oligomers (homodimers or heterodimers) that can regulate (1) cell surface delivery following receptor maturation or cellular trafficking following agonist activation, and (2) receptor pharmacology and signaling. Short chain fatty acid receptors (highlighted in blue color font) are noted if data exist on their regulatory mechanisms. FFA2/3, free fatty acid receptor 2/3; GPR109a, G‐protein‐coupled receptor 109a (6,8,14,15,102,112,120,114,144,179,212).
Figure 3. Figure 3. Short chain fatty acid levels and expression of cognate receptors in select tissues. Short chain fatty acid concentrations in contents along the intestine (left upper panel) and systemic and portal blood in human subjects (left lower panel) [adapted, from Cummings et al. (40)]. Right‐hand panel, human short chain fatty acid receptor expression in select tissues presented as plot of mean transcripts per million from HPA (human protein atlas) except for expression in human islets that was obtained by qRT‐PCR and presented relative to GAPDH (Brian T Layden, unpublished data).
Figure 4. Figure 4. Signaling pathways downstream of FFA2, FFA3, and GPR109a activation and corresponding effects. Apart from G‐proteins, FFA2 can signal via arrestin exerting anti‐inflammatory effects. Niacin at GPR109a shows biased agonism, arrestin signaling preferentially over G‐protein signaling causing flushing.
Figure 5. Figure 5. Short chain fatty acid receptors in gut immune homeostasis. Short chain fatty acids produced by fermentative activity of gut microbiota bind and activate receptors on intestinal epithelial cells and immune cells like macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells. Production of cytoprotective IL‐18 (from FFA2/GPR109a‐dependent activation of inflammasome), anti‐inflammatory IgA (from FFA2‐dependent activation of B cells), anti‐inflammatory IL‐10 (from FFA2 activation and GPR109a‐dependent activation of macrophages and dendritic cells), and (FFA2‐ and GPR109a‐dependent) differentiation and proliferation of Tregs protect against conditions leading to colitis and colitis associated cancer. Taken together, these processes influence epithelial barrier integrity, adequate neutrophil migration, balanced proinflammatory (Th1 and Th17), and immunosuppressive (Treg) responses under conditions of inflammatory insult. CD, cluster of differentiation; IgA, immunoglobulin A; Th, T helper cells; Treg, regulatory T cells; short chain fatty acids are represented by , ; FFA2 and GPR109a, respectively, on immune cells are represented by , ; red upward arrow signifies increase; blue downward arrow signifies decrease (92,111,116,117,176,177,181,190,191,220).
Figure 6. Figure 6. Customizing our approach for resolution of the roles of short chain fatty acid receptors. Evidence connects short chain fatty acid receptors to gut inflammatory responses. For reasons like shared endogenous ligands, differences in ligand efficacy for species orthologs (and others, enumerated in the text) there are hurdles in assigning selective physiological roles to these receptors. Their actual therapeutic potential thus remains unappreciated. These blocks can be overcome by customized approaches like, development of selective and potent agonists and antagonists for these receptors and their use in in vitro and ex vivo models (A and D); use of designer receptors with modified ligand binging sites, allowing activation of a particular member from the family which also contains a fluorescent tag (if attached to the receptor) (B); minimizing discrepancies by determining receptor expression along the course of cell/tissue differentiation (C); several different mouse models can be used to ascertain specific physiological effects of these receptors (E), including use of mice lacking two or more members of the family (multiple receptor KO), tissue specific KO or mice with gene of a human receptor replacing the mouse ortholog (tissue specific human receptor knock‐in). These mouse models can then be used in combination with gut microbiota knockdown approaches (germ free), colonized with human microbiota, or fed SCFAs alone or in combination to determine the interrelationship of these receptors with gut microbiota (44,73,94,120,122,123,132,206,218).
Figure 7. Figure 7. Interplay of diet, gut microbiota, and short chain fatty acid receptors. Gut microbiota converts fiber in the diet to SCFAs. Activity of SCFAs at their receptors on gut cells promotes epithelial integrity and immune homeostasis. High‐fiber diet also shapes and selects for beneficial gut microbiota, and this selection is dependent on the genotype of the host. The combinatorial effect of these processes is resistance against inflammatory states like colitis and colitis associated cancer (111,116,181,190,191).


Figure 1. Different G‐protein signaling pathways. Ligand (agonist) occupation of the binding pocket in the GPCR leads to conformational changes in the receptor and an altered interaction with heterotrimeric G‐proteins. The activated receptor acts as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor that catalyzes the exchange of GDP for GTP on the Gα subunit and induced dissociation of active Gα subunit and Gβγ dimer (activated subunits represented with orange shade). There are four main Gα subunit protein classes, Gαq, Gαs, Gαi, Gα12/13. Each GPCR can couple with one or more Gα subunits. The activated Gα subunits can bind to and regulate the activity of several downstream effector molecules generating a cascade of signaling responses that culminate into specific cellular responses. Gαq/11 family members bind to and activate phospholipase C (PLC) which hydrolyses phosphotidylinositol 4,5‐bisphosphate (PIP2) to diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IP3) which can mobilize calcium from intracellular stores or activate downstream protein kinases and modulate cell response. Gαs subunit activates adenylyl cyclase (AC) which increases intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels leading to activation of protein kinase A (PKA). Gαi subunit inhibits AC and reduces intracellular cAMP concentration. Gα12/13 can activate Rho kinases. The Gβγ subunit can activate phosphoinositide 3 kinase γ (PI3Kγ), protein kinases (PKD), and phospholipases (PLC). Various short chain fatty acid receptors (highlighted in blue color) are listed based on their G‐protein‐coupling preference. FFA2/3, free fatty acid receptor 2/3; Olfr78, olfactory receptor 78; GPR109a, G‐protein‐coupled receptor 109a (32,135,145,147,152).


Figure 2. Regulation of GPCR signaling. Binding of agonist to the GPCR initiates a series of events: exchange of GDP for GTP on Gα subunit, dissociation of activated GTP‐Gα and Gβγ dimer, stimulation of downstream effectors (depicted in Fig. 1). To prevent overstimulation and assure receptor resensitization, GPCR signaling is regulated by multiple mechanisms (few are enumerated here; see Further Reading list for detailed description). (A) Regulator of G‐protein signaling (RGS) proteins function as GTPase‐activating proteins, enhance the intrinsic GTP hydrolysis activity of the Gα subunit resulting in generation of inactive GDP‐Gα, and promoting the reassembly G‐protein heterotrimer and its reassociation with the receptor. (B) GPCR kinases (GRK) phosphorylate specific residues on the intracellular domain of agonist‐occupied receptor. Phosphorylated receptor recruits β arrestin that sterically hinders interaction of the receptor with G‐protein, thus uncoupling the G‐protein complex from the GPCR (termed as desensitization). (C) Binding to the phosphorylated GPCR activates arrestin enabling it to perform ligand regulated scaffolding functions. Activated β arrestin interacts with the endocytic machinery (clathrin and adaptor proteins) and initiates receptor internalization. (D‐F) Internalized GPCR in GPCR‐β arrestin endosome can have multiple fates. GPCR‐β arrestin complex can (D) direct the assembly of signalosome by allowing coupling of mitogen‐activated protein kinases propagating further signaling pathways, (E) be targeted for lysosomal degradation, or (F) GPCRs can be trafficked to recycling endosomes and recycled back to the plasma membrane for resensitization. (G) Ligand type can also determine course of GPCR signaling where biased agonists can specifically activate either G‐protein or β arrestin‐mediated signaling pathway. (H) Gene transcription can also affect the total membrane levels of the GPCR. Transcription can be regulated by various inflammatory mediators, which can activate transcription factors that bind directly like XBP‐1 on FFA2 promoter or indirectly affect chromatin accessibility by altering acetylation/methylation of the promoter (IFNγ for GPR109a). (I) GPCRs can form oligomers (homodimers or heterodimers) that can regulate (1) cell surface delivery following receptor maturation or cellular trafficking following agonist activation, and (2) receptor pharmacology and signaling. Short chain fatty acid receptors (highlighted in blue color font) are noted if data exist on their regulatory mechanisms. FFA2/3, free fatty acid receptor 2/3; GPR109a, G‐protein‐coupled receptor 109a (6,8,14,15,102,112,120,114,144,179,212).


Figure 3. Short chain fatty acid levels and expression of cognate receptors in select tissues. Short chain fatty acid concentrations in contents along the intestine (left upper panel) and systemic and portal blood in human subjects (left lower panel) [adapted, from Cummings et al. (40)]. Right‐hand panel, human short chain fatty acid receptor expression in select tissues presented as plot of mean transcripts per million from HPA (human protein atlas) except for expression in human islets that was obtained by qRT‐PCR and presented relative to GAPDH (Brian T Layden, unpublished data).


Figure 4. Signaling pathways downstream of FFA2, FFA3, and GPR109a activation and corresponding effects. Apart from G‐proteins, FFA2 can signal via arrestin exerting anti‐inflammatory effects. Niacin at GPR109a shows biased agonism, arrestin signaling preferentially over G‐protein signaling causing flushing.


Figure 5. Short chain fatty acid receptors in gut immune homeostasis. Short chain fatty acids produced by fermentative activity of gut microbiota bind and activate receptors on intestinal epithelial cells and immune cells like macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells. Production of cytoprotective IL‐18 (from FFA2/GPR109a‐dependent activation of inflammasome), anti‐inflammatory IgA (from FFA2‐dependent activation of B cells), anti‐inflammatory IL‐10 (from FFA2 activation and GPR109a‐dependent activation of macrophages and dendritic cells), and (FFA2‐ and GPR109a‐dependent) differentiation and proliferation of Tregs protect against conditions leading to colitis and colitis associated cancer. Taken together, these processes influence epithelial barrier integrity, adequate neutrophil migration, balanced proinflammatory (Th1 and Th17), and immunosuppressive (Treg) responses under conditions of inflammatory insult. CD, cluster of differentiation; IgA, immunoglobulin A; Th, T helper cells; Treg, regulatory T cells; short chain fatty acids are represented by , ; FFA2 and GPR109a, respectively, on immune cells are represented by , ; red upward arrow signifies increase; blue downward arrow signifies decrease (92,111,116,117,176,177,181,190,191,220).


Figure 6. Customizing our approach for resolution of the roles of short chain fatty acid receptors. Evidence connects short chain fatty acid receptors to gut inflammatory responses. For reasons like shared endogenous ligands, differences in ligand efficacy for species orthologs (and others, enumerated in the text) there are hurdles in assigning selective physiological roles to these receptors. Their actual therapeutic potential thus remains unappreciated. These blocks can be overcome by customized approaches like, development of selective and potent agonists and antagonists for these receptors and their use in in vitro and ex vivo models (A and D); use of designer receptors with modified ligand binging sites, allowing activation of a particular member from the family which also contains a fluorescent tag (if attached to the receptor) (B); minimizing discrepancies by determining receptor expression along the course of cell/tissue differentiation (C); several different mouse models can be used to ascertain specific physiological effects of these receptors (E), including use of mice lacking two or more members of the family (multiple receptor KO), tissue specific KO or mice with gene of a human receptor replacing the mouse ortholog (tissue specific human receptor knock‐in). These mouse models can then be used in combination with gut microbiota knockdown approaches (germ free), colonized with human microbiota, or fed SCFAs alone or in combination to determine the interrelationship of these receptors with gut microbiota (44,73,94,120,122,123,132,206,218).


Figure 7. Interplay of diet, gut microbiota, and short chain fatty acid receptors. Gut microbiota converts fiber in the diet to SCFAs. Activity of SCFAs at their receptors on gut cells promotes epithelial integrity and immune homeostasis. High‐fiber diet also shapes and selects for beneficial gut microbiota, and this selection is dependent on the genotype of the host. The combinatorial effect of these processes is resistance against inflammatory states like colitis and colitis associated cancer (111,116,181,190,191).
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Further Reading List

Pavlos NJ, Friedman PA. GPCR Signaling and Trafficking: The Long and Short of It. Trends Endocrinol Metab  28:213-226, 2017.

Rajagopal S, Shenoy SK. GPCR desensitization: Acute and prolonged phases. Cell Signal pii: S0898-6568(17)30030-X, 2017.

Sjögren B. The evolution of regulators of G protein signalling proteins as drug targets - 20 years in the making: IUPHAR Review 21. Br J Pharmacol 174:427-437, 2017.

Komolov KE, Benovic JL. G protein-coupled receptor kinases: Past, present and future. Cell Signal pii: S0898-6568(17)30182-1, 2017.

Ranjan R, Dwivedi H, Baidya M, Kumar M, Shukla AK. Novel Structural Insights into GPCR-?-Arrestin Interaction and Signaling. Trends Cell Biol pii: S0962-8924(17)30087-9, 2017.

Brand MW, Wannemuehler MJ, Phillips GJ, Proctor A, Overstreet A, Jergens AE, Orcutt RP, Fox JG. The Altered Schaedler Flora: Continued Applications of a Defined Murine Microbial Community. ILAR J 56: 169-178, 2015.

 

 

Teaching Material

M. Priyadarshini, K. U. Kotlo, P. K. Dudeja, B. T. Layden. Role of Short Chain Fatty Acid Receptors in Intestinal Physiology and Pathophysiology. Compr Physiol 8: 2018, 1091-1115.

Didactic Synopsis

Major Teaching Points:

  1. Short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) produced by gut microbial fermentation serve both as an energy source and signaling molecules.
  2. Molecular sensors for these SCFAs are G-protein coupled receptors. These GPCRs, namely, FFA2 and FFA3 and GPR109a have immune as well as metabolic roles.
  3. These receptors, including Olfr78, have overlapping ligand profiles and some functional redundancy, but their restricted expression pattern in various cell types in the gut (and other tissues) and distinct G-protein-coupling profiles allows for specific physiologic effects.
  4. FFA2 and GPR109a modify the gut immune cell repertoire and inflammatory responses regulating immune homeostasis, guard intestinal epithelial barrier against pathogenic intrusion and tumor growth.
  5. FFA2 and FFA3 appear to regulate GLP-1, GIP, and PYY secretion exerting effects on glucose homeostasis.
  6. These roles signify a link between gut microbiota and host physiology through SCFA receptors.
  7. Targeted modulation of these SCFA receptors may promote intestinal health.

Didactic Legends

The figures—in a freely downloadable PowerPoint format—can be found on the Images tab along with the formal legends published in the article. The following legends to the same figures are written to be useful for teaching.

Figure 1. Teaching points:

  1. GPCRs are membrane bound proteins having seven transmembrane domains.
  2. GPCR interacting guanine nucleotide binding proteins (G-proteins) are heterotrimeric composed of three different subunits namely Gα, Gβ, and Gγ.
  3. In absence of an agonist (inactive state), Gα has a bound GDP (guanosine diphosphate). Upon binding of the agonist to the receptor (active state), Gα subunit releases GDP, and occupies GTP (guanosine triphosphate). Following this, active Gα subunit and Gβγ dimer dissociate from the receptor initiating downstream signaling cascade.
  4. There are four main Gα subunit protein classes, Gαq, Gαs, Gαi, and Gα12/13. Each GPCR can couple with one or more Gα subunits.
  5. Activated G protein subunits stimulate downstream effectors like adenylyl cyclase (AC) generating secondary messengers like cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP).
  6. For example, Gαq/11 subunit family members bind and activate phospholipase C (PLC) which catalyzes production of two secondary messengers diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IP3) from phosphotidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) leading to mobilization of calcium from intracellular stores. Gαs subunit activates AC, which increases intracellular concentration of the secondary cAMP leading to activation of protein kinase A (PKA). Gαi subunit inhibits AC and reduces intracellular cAMP concentration. Gα12/13 can activate Rho kinases.
  7. The Gβγ subunit dimer can activate various kinases, phosphoinositide 3 kinase γ (PI3Kγ), protein kinases (PKD), and PLC.
  8. Ultimately, GPCR activation event is transduced to a cellular response like hormone secretion.
  9. Various short chain fatty acid receptors (highlighted in blue color) are listed based on their G-protein-coupling preference. FFA2/3, free fatty acid receptor 2/3; Olfr78, olfactory receptor 78; GPR109a, G-protein-coupled receptor 109a.

Figure 2. Teaching points: Several mechanisms control GPCR signaling to maintain an optimal level of cellular response. Few mechanisms are illustrated here.

  1. First level of regulation is provided by special proteins, regulator of G-protein-signaling (RGS) proteins, that increase rate of hydrolysis GTP bound to Gα subunit to GDP and generate GDP-Gα free to associate with Gβγ. The heterotrimeric G protein complex can realign with the GPCR.
  2. At the second level, GPCR signaling can be terminated by GPCR kinases (GRK) that phosphorylate GPCRs enhancing their affinity for another protein, β arrestin, which prevents further interaction of the G protein with the GPCR and desensitizes it.
  3. At the third level, β arrestin directs the phosphorylated receptor to the clathrin-coated pits (part of the endocytic machinery) which are then internalized as endosomes (sorting vesicles directing cargo to intracellular compartment). Internalized receptor can be degraded (β-arrestin is shed off and GPCR is directed to lysosomes) or recycled back to cell membrane. β-arrestin on the GPCR-β-arrestin endosome can act as an adaptor for various kinases forming a “signalosome” and initiate distinct signaling pathways.
  4. At the fourth level, the type of the ligand can determine the GPCR signaling response by favoring either G-protein or β-arrestin pathway.
  5. At the fifth level, transcription of GPCR gene can be regulated by activity of factors that can bind to the gene promoter or affect acetylation/methylation of the chromatin.
  6. At the sixth level, GPCRs can oligomerize. Such oligomerization in response to activation by the agonist can influence receptor internalization, receptor activity, and downstream signaling. Oligomerization may also be important for transport of the receptor to the cell surface.
  7. Short chain fatty acid receptors (highlighted in blue color font) are listed based on regulatory mechanism reported for them. FFA2/3, free fatty acid receptor 2/3; GPR109a, G-protein-coupled receptor 109a.

Figure 3 Teaching points:

  1. Short chain fatty acid concentrations are highest at the site of their production, that is, in the intestine (left upper panel).
  2. SCFA concentrations are higher in portal blood than in systemic circulation (left lower panel).
  3. Similarly, expression of SCFA receptors varies in different tissues.

Figure 4 Teaching points:

  1. Activated FFA2 can couple with Gαq/11 (downstream stimulatory response), with Gαi/o (downstream inhibitory response) or with β arrestin (G-protein-independent response).
  2. Activated FFA3 couples exclusively with Gαi/o exerting inhibitory response.
  3. Activated GPR109a can couple with Gαi/o or can signal independent of G-proteins via β-arrestin.
  4. Receptor activation is thus followed by pleiotropic physiological effects.

Figure 5 Teaching points:

  1. Short chain fatty acids produced by gut microbiota bind and activate receptors on intestinal epithelial cells and immune cells like macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells.
  2. In intestinal epithelial cells, acetate and butyrate activation of FFA2 and GPR109a, respectively, result in activation of inflammasome through GPCR-mediated increase in intracellular calcium mobilization, and this, in turn, leads to production of IL-18 that mediates cytoprotection and promote repair.
  3. FFA2 is the chief “neutrophil short chain fatty acid receptor” responsible for chemotaxis (migration to the site of inflammation).
  4. FFA2 mediates dendritic cell dependent production of IgA from activated B cells (plasma cells). IgA is secreted across the epithelial membrane and provides resistance against infection.
  5. FFA2 and GPR109a promote Treg cell differentiation and proliferation which reduce production of proinflammatory mediators by effects on proinflammatory Th1and/or Th17 cells.
  6. FFA2 activation and GPR109a activation on macrophages and dendritic cells enhances production of anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL-10.
  7. Taken together, these processes promote epithelial barrier integrity, adequate neutrophil migration, balanced proinflammatory (Th1 and Th17) and immunosuppressive (Treg) responses under conditions of inflammatory insult.
  8. CD, cluster of differentiation; IgA, immunoglobulin A; Th, T helper cells; Treg, regulatory T cells; short chain fatty acids are represented by □; FFA2 and GPR109a, respectively on immune cells are represented by □; red upward arrow signifies increase; blue downward arrow signifies decrease.

Figure 6 Teaching points:

  1. To appreciate specific physiological roles of various short chain fatty acid receptors several approaches are being tried or developed.
  2. Efforts are directed for development of discriminative ligands, designer receptors, and in vivo models. This will help understand receptor specific effects, discern signaling properties of human, and mouse orthologs of the receptor, and clear doubts about the expression pattern of these receptors.
  3. Use of novel mouse models with multiple receptor KO, tissue specific KO, and knock-in of human receptor ortholog along with modulation of gut micorbiota will help understand the interplay of diet, gut microbiota, and receptor signaling and its contribution to (patho)physiology.

Figure 7 Teaching points:

  1. Through the activity of gut microbiota dietary fiber gets converted to short chain fatty acids (SCFAs).
  2. Activity of SCFAs at their cognate receptors on gut immune and epithelial cells is protective against breach of epithelial barrier and immune homeostasis.
  3. Dietary fiber also alters gut microbiota composition selecting for beneficial bacteria.
  4. Besides diet, genetic makeup of the host also influences gut microbiota composition.

 


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Article Title: Role of Short Chain Fatty Acid Receptors in Intestinal Physiology and Pathophysiology
 

How to Cite

Medha Priyadarshini, Kumar U. Kotlo, Pradeep K. Dudeja, Brian T. Layden. Role of Short Chain Fatty Acid Receptors in Intestinal Physiology and Pathophysiology. Compr Physiol 2018, 8: 1091-1115. doi: 10.1002/cphy.c170050