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Glucose Utilization

Erik A. Richter

10.1002/cphy.cp120120

Source: Supplement 29: Handbook of Physiology, Exercise: Regulation and Integration of Multiple Systems

Originally published: 1996

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Molecular Basis for Glucose Transport
1.1 Family of Glucose Transporters
1.2 Translocation of Glucose Transporters
1.3 Intrinsic Activity
1.4 Fiber‐Type Specific Expression of GLUT4
2 Role of Glut4 in Contraction‐Induced Skeletal Muscle Glucose Transport
3 Signaling Mechanisms Involved in Contraction‐Induced Increase in Glucose Transport
4 Regulation of Glucose Utilization in Vivo
4.1 Glucose Supply
4.2 Membrane Glucose Transport Capacity
4.3 Glucose Metabolism
5 Regulation of Glucose Utilization at Rest
6 Regulation of Glucose Utilization During Exercise
6.1 Effect of Exercise Intensity
6.2 Effect of Exercise Duration
6.3 Effect of Exercise Type
6.4 Alternative Substrates
6.5 Glucose Utilization During Exercise in Adverse Environment
6.6 Humoral Regulation of Glucose Utilization During Exercise
6.7 Effect of Physical Training Status
6.8 Exercise in States of Altered Glucose Utilization
7 Regulation of Glucose Utilization in the Postexercise State
7.1 Membrane Glucose Transport Capacity Induced by Contraction
7.2 Insulin Sensitivity
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Proposed mechanism of glucose transport. The glucose transporter alternates from an outward to an inward facing conformation.

For details, see Oka et al. 261
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Low‐power electron micrograph of nonstimulated soleus muscle fibers immunostained with anti‐GLUT4 showing subsarcolemmal aggregation of mitochondria. A stack of flattened cirsternae (open arrows) resembling Golgi apparatus is stained. Plasma membrane (curved arrow) is unstained. Note weak staining of several triadic junctions (small arrows).

Reproduced from Bornemann et al. 43, with permission
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Schematic drawing of a muscle cell showing distribution of GLUT1 and GLUT4 and effect of insulin and contractions. It is indicated that the intracellular pool of GLUT4 may possibly be divided into an insulin‐sensitive and a contraction‐sensitive pool, but this is not certain. GLUT4 recycles between intracellular pool and sarcolemma, and insulin has in adipocytes been shown to increase mainly the exocytotic rate and may or may not decrease the internalization rate constant 91,181,316,327. Thus, a similar effect of insulin in muscle is hypothesized. Whether contractions affect the exocytotic and/or endocytotic pathway is unknown. If present in myocytes, GLUT1 resides mainly in the plasma membrane. GT1, GLUT1; GT4, GLUT4.
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Schematic drawing of a muscle cell showing hypothesized effect of insulin and contractions on GLUT4 translocation and Rab protein participation. The subtypes of Rab proteins in muscle associated with GLUT4‐containing vesicles are yet unidentified. SR, sarcoplasmic reticulum; IR, insulin receptor.
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Relationship between stimulated glucose transport and GLUT4 protein content in epitrochlearis (•), soleus (○), EDL (▪), and FDB (□) muscles. Glucose transport (2‐Deoxyglucose uptake) was stimulated by insulin alone (A), contractions alone (B), and insulin and contractions in combination (C).

Adapted from Henriksen et al. 155 with permission
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Glucose uptake across the human thigh during dynamic knee‐extensor exercise at moderate intensity. Glucose uptake was measured after 30 min exercise at each plasma glucose concentration and plasma insulin concentration was clamped at basal levels by infusion of somatostatin and replacement insulin. Values are means ±SE of four observations. Km was calculated to 10.5 mM and Vmax to 1.67 mmol · kg−1 · min−1.
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Isotopically measured whole‐body glucose disappearance (dotted line) and directly measured two‐leg glucose uptake (solid line) in man at rest and during ergometer cycling with legs only and with added arm crancking from 30–50 min exercise. Values are means ± SE of seven observations.

Reproduced from Kjaer et al. 201, with permission
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Arterial blood glucose concentration and leg glucose uptake at rest and during ergometer cycling with the legs.

Adapted from Wahren et al. 358, with permission
Figure 9. Figure 9.

One‐leg blood flow, A‐V difference for blood glucose, and two‐leg glucose uptake in man at rest and during bicycling at light, moderate, and heavy exercise. Each workload corresponds to a pulmonary oxygen uptake of ∼1.2, 2.2, and 3.3 liters/min, respectively. Values are from references 4,5,185 and are recorded after 40 min of exercise except at the highest workload, which was sustained for only 3.5 min but preceeded by 15 min submaximal exercise 185.
Figure 10. Figure 10.

Increase in hindlimb glucose uptake with electrical stimulation. Perfusate flow was either increased from 9 ml/min to 15 ml/min at the onset of contractions (broken line) or was constant at 15 ml/min both at rest and during contractions (full line). Values are means ± SE of 11–12 observations.
Figure 11. Figure 11.

Schematic presentation of possible biochemical mechanisms involved in regulation of glucose utilization by the alternative substrates glycogen and free fatty acids (FFA) in muscle during exercise. Glycogen breakdown may inhibit glucose phosphorylation via production of glucose 6‐phosphate in turn inhibiting hexokinase. In addition, rapid glycogenolysis may by virtue of lactate production decrease pH, which decreases intrinsic activity of GLUT4 212. Finally, 6%–7% of glycogen is broken down to free glucose via activity of the debranching enzyme. In concert with hexokinase inhibition this may lead to decreased glucose gradient from interstitium to cytosol. FFA is proposed to inhibit glucose utilization via pyruvatedehydrogenase and phosphofructokinase inhibition, again leading to build‐up of glucose 6‐phosphate and hexokinase inhibition. However, evidence for this mechanism in contracting muscle is weak. FFA may possibly have direct inhibitory effects on glucose transport. G, glucose; G‐6‐P, glucose 6‐phosphate; FFA, free fatty acids; HK, hexokinase; PFK, phosphofructokinase; PDH, pyruvatedehydrogenase.
Figure 12. Figure 12.

Arterial concentrations of glucose, and glucose uptake before, during, and after 1 h of one‐legged dynamic knee extensions. Subjects exercised with one leg during control conditions (plasma FFA ∼0.50 mM) and with the other leg during intralipid infusion (plasma FFA ∼1.1 mM). Values are means ± SE of seven observations. * P < 0.05 compared with values during control conditions.

Adapted from Hargreaves et al. 151 with permission
Figure 13. Figure 13.

Glucose uptake at rest and during electrical stimulation in perfused rat hindlimb. Perfusate contained no insulin (squares) or insulin at 100 μ/ml (circles). Filled symbols denote addition of caffeine at 77 μM. *Values in the presence of caffeine are significantly lower than in the absence during muscle contractions. Values are means ± SE of 13–27 observations.

Adapted from Vergauen et al. 351, with permission
Figure 14. Figure 14.

Relationship between GLUT4 concentration in vastus lateralis muscle and whole‐body glucose disappearence after 40 min of bicycle exercise at 72% of peak oxygen uptake, r = −0.89, P < 0.01.

Adapted from McConnell et al. 236, with permission
Figure 15. Figure 15.

Dose‐response curve for insulin‐stimulated glucose uptake in perfused rat hindquarters. Rats were either rested or exercised on a treadmill for 45 min before perfusion.

Adapted from Richter et al. 293, with permission
Figure 16. Figure 16.

Concentration of GLUT4 protein in eccentrically exercised and in the nonexercised control vastus lateralis muscle immediately after exercise and 1, 2, 4, and 7 days later. Before exercise, GLUT4 was only measured in the control leg. Values are means ± SE of seven observations and are expressed as concentration relative to a rat heart standard.* P < 0.05 compared to contralateral control leg.

Reproduced from Asp et al. 13, with permission


Figure 1.

Proposed mechanism of glucose transport. The glucose transporter alternates from an outward to an inward facing conformation.

For details, see Oka et al. 261


Figure 2.

Low‐power electron micrograph of nonstimulated soleus muscle fibers immunostained with anti‐GLUT4 showing subsarcolemmal aggregation of mitochondria. A stack of flattened cirsternae (open arrows) resembling Golgi apparatus is stained. Plasma membrane (curved arrow) is unstained. Note weak staining of several triadic junctions (small arrows).

Reproduced from Bornemann et al. 43, with permission


Figure 3.

Schematic drawing of a muscle cell showing distribution of GLUT1 and GLUT4 and effect of insulin and contractions. It is indicated that the intracellular pool of GLUT4 may possibly be divided into an insulin‐sensitive and a contraction‐sensitive pool, but this is not certain. GLUT4 recycles between intracellular pool and sarcolemma, and insulin has in adipocytes been shown to increase mainly the exocytotic rate and may or may not decrease the internalization rate constant 91,181,316,327. Thus, a similar effect of insulin in muscle is hypothesized. Whether contractions affect the exocytotic and/or endocytotic pathway is unknown. If present in myocytes, GLUT1 resides mainly in the plasma membrane. GT1, GLUT1; GT4, GLUT4.



Figure 4.

Schematic drawing of a muscle cell showing hypothesized effect of insulin and contractions on GLUT4 translocation and Rab protein participation. The subtypes of Rab proteins in muscle associated with GLUT4‐containing vesicles are yet unidentified. SR, sarcoplasmic reticulum; IR, insulin receptor.



Figure 5.

Relationship between stimulated glucose transport and GLUT4 protein content in epitrochlearis (•), soleus (○), EDL (▪), and FDB (□) muscles. Glucose transport (2‐Deoxyglucose uptake) was stimulated by insulin alone (A), contractions alone (B), and insulin and contractions in combination (C).

Adapted from Henriksen et al. 155 with permission


Figure 6.

Glucose uptake across the human thigh during dynamic knee‐extensor exercise at moderate intensity. Glucose uptake was measured after 30 min exercise at each plasma glucose concentration and plasma insulin concentration was clamped at basal levels by infusion of somatostatin and replacement insulin. Values are means ±SE of four observations. Km was calculated to 10.5 mM and Vmax to 1.67 mmol · kg−1 · min−1.



Figure 7.

Isotopically measured whole‐body glucose disappearance (dotted line) and directly measured two‐leg glucose uptake (solid line) in man at rest and during ergometer cycling with legs only and with added arm crancking from 30–50 min exercise. Values are means ± SE of seven observations.

Reproduced from Kjaer et al. 201, with permission


Figure 8.

Arterial blood glucose concentration and leg glucose uptake at rest and during ergometer cycling with the legs.

Adapted from Wahren et al. 358, with permission


Figure 9.

One‐leg blood flow, A‐V difference for blood glucose, and two‐leg glucose uptake in man at rest and during bicycling at light, moderate, and heavy exercise. Each workload corresponds to a pulmonary oxygen uptake of ∼1.2, 2.2, and 3.3 liters/min, respectively. Values are from references 4,5,185 and are recorded after 40 min of exercise except at the highest workload, which was sustained for only 3.5 min but preceeded by 15 min submaximal exercise 185.



Figure 10.

Increase in hindlimb glucose uptake with electrical stimulation. Perfusate flow was either increased from 9 ml/min to 15 ml/min at the onset of contractions (broken line) or was constant at 15 ml/min both at rest and during contractions (full line). Values are means ± SE of 11–12 observations.



Figure 11.

Schematic presentation of possible biochemical mechanisms involved in regulation of glucose utilization by the alternative substrates glycogen and free fatty acids (FFA) in muscle during exercise. Glycogen breakdown may inhibit glucose phosphorylation via production of glucose 6‐phosphate in turn inhibiting hexokinase. In addition, rapid glycogenolysis may by virtue of lactate production decrease pH, which decreases intrinsic activity of GLUT4 212. Finally, 6%–7% of glycogen is broken down to free glucose via activity of the debranching enzyme. In concert with hexokinase inhibition this may lead to decreased glucose gradient from interstitium to cytosol. FFA is proposed to inhibit glucose utilization via pyruvatedehydrogenase and phosphofructokinase inhibition, again leading to build‐up of glucose 6‐phosphate and hexokinase inhibition. However, evidence for this mechanism in contracting muscle is weak. FFA may possibly have direct inhibitory effects on glucose transport. G, glucose; G‐6‐P, glucose 6‐phosphate; FFA, free fatty acids; HK, hexokinase; PFK, phosphofructokinase; PDH, pyruvatedehydrogenase.



Figure 12.

Arterial concentrations of glucose, and glucose uptake before, during, and after 1 h of one‐legged dynamic knee extensions. Subjects exercised with one leg during control conditions (plasma FFA ∼0.50 mM) and with the other leg during intralipid infusion (plasma FFA ∼1.1 mM). Values are means ± SE of seven observations. * P < 0.05 compared with values during control conditions.

Adapted from Hargreaves et al. 151 with permission


Figure 13.

Glucose uptake at rest and during electrical stimulation in perfused rat hindlimb. Perfusate contained no insulin (squares) or insulin at 100 μ/ml (circles). Filled symbols denote addition of caffeine at 77 μM. *Values in the presence of caffeine are significantly lower than in the absence during muscle contractions. Values are means ± SE of 13–27 observations.

Adapted from Vergauen et al. 351, with permission


Figure 14.

Relationship between GLUT4 concentration in vastus lateralis muscle and whole‐body glucose disappearence after 40 min of bicycle exercise at 72% of peak oxygen uptake, r = −0.89, P < 0.01.

Adapted from McConnell et al. 236, with permission


Figure 15.

Dose‐response curve for insulin‐stimulated glucose uptake in perfused rat hindquarters. Rats were either rested or exercised on a treadmill for 45 min before perfusion.

Adapted from Richter et al. 293, with permission


Figure 16.

Concentration of GLUT4 protein in eccentrically exercised and in the nonexercised control vastus lateralis muscle immediately after exercise and 1, 2, 4, and 7 days later. Before exercise, GLUT4 was only measured in the control leg. Values are means ± SE of seven observations and are expressed as concentration relative to a rat heart standard.* P < 0.05 compared to contralateral control leg.

Reproduced from Asp et al. 13, with permission
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Article Title: Glucose Utilization
 

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Erik A. Richter. Glucose Utilization. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 29: Handbook of Physiology, Exercise: Regulation and Integration of Multiple Systems: 912-951. First published in print 1996. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp120120